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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 150    }
 151
 152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 155
 156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 159
 160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 162
 163    # Always do union distinct or union all
 164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 165
 166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 168
 169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 171
 172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 174
 175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 177
 178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 183
 184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 186
 187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 189
 190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 192
 193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 195
 196    # Whether join hints should be generated
 197    JOIN_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether table hints should be generated
 200    TABLE_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # Whether query hints should be generated
 203    QUERY_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 207
 208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 210
 211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 213
 214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 216
 217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 218    RETURNING_END = True
 219
 220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 225
 226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 228
 229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 231
 232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 234
 235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 239
 240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 242
 243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 245
 246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 248
 249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 251
 252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 254
 255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 257
 258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 260
 261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 263
 264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 266
 267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 269
 270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 272
 273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 275
 276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 278
 279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 281
 282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 284
 285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 287
 288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 290
 291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 293
 294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 296
 297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 299
 300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 302
 303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 305
 306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 308
 309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 311
 312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 314
 315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 318
 319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 321
 322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 324
 325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 327
 328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 330
 331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 333
 334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 336
 337    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 338    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 339    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 340    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 341
 342    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 343    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 344
 345    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 346    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 347
 348    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 349    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 350
 351    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 352        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 353        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 354        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 355        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 356        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 357        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 358        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 359        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 360        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 361        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 362    }
 363
 364    STAR_MAPPING = {
 365        "except": "EXCEPT",
 366        "replace": "REPLACE",
 367    }
 368
 369    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 370        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 371        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 372        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 373        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 374        "DAYS": "DAY",
 375        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 376        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 377        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 378        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 379    }
 380
 381    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 382        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 383        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 384        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 385        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 386        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 387            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 388            if e.args.get("windows")
 389            else ""
 390        ),
 391    }
 392
 393    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 394
 395    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 396
 397    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 398    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 399
 400    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 401        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 402        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 406        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 408        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 414        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 421        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 423        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 424        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 425        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 426        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 428        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 431        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 436        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 437        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 438        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 439        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 440        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 442        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 445        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 448        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 461        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 462        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 465        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 467        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 469        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 472        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 474        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 475        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 476        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477    }
 478
 479    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 480    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 481
 482    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 483    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 484        exp.Create,
 485        exp.Delete,
 486        exp.Drop,
 487        exp.From,
 488        exp.Insert,
 489        exp.Join,
 490        exp.Select,
 491        exp.Union,
 492        exp.Update,
 493        exp.Where,
 494        exp.With,
 495    )
 496
 497    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 498    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 499        exp.Binary,
 500        exp.Union,
 501    )
 502
 503    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 504    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 505        exp.Column,
 506        exp.Literal,
 507        exp.Neg,
 508        exp.Paren,
 509    )
 510
 511    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 512        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 513        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 514        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 515        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 516    }
 517
 518    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 519    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 520
 521    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 522
 523    __slots__ = (
 524        "pretty",
 525        "identify",
 526        "normalize",
 527        "pad",
 528        "_indent",
 529        "normalize_functions",
 530        "unsupported_level",
 531        "max_unsupported",
 532        "leading_comma",
 533        "max_text_width",
 534        "comments",
 535        "dialect",
 536        "unsupported_messages",
 537        "_escaped_quote_end",
 538        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 539    )
 540
 541    def __init__(
 542        self,
 543        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 544        identify: str | bool = False,
 545        normalize: bool = False,
 546        pad: int = 2,
 547        indent: int = 2,
 548        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 549        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 550        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 551        leading_comma: bool = False,
 552        max_text_width: int = 80,
 553        comments: bool = True,
 554        dialect: DialectType = None,
 555    ):
 556        import sqlglot
 557        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 558
 559        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 560        self.identify = identify
 561        self.normalize = normalize
 562        self.pad = pad
 563        self._indent = indent
 564        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 565        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 566        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 567        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 568        self.comments = comments
 569        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 570
 571        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 572        self.normalize_functions = (
 573            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 574        )
 575
 576        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 577        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 578            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 579        )
 580        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 581            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 582        )
 583
 584    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 585        """
 586        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 587
 588        Args:
 589            expression: The syntax tree.
 590            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 591                it is safer to copy.
 592
 593        Returns:
 594            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 595        """
 596        if copy:
 597            expression = expression.copy()
 598
 599        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 600
 601        self.unsupported_messages = []
 602        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 603
 604        if self.pretty:
 605            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 606
 607        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 608            return sql
 609
 610        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 611            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 612                logger.warning(msg)
 613        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 614            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 615
 616        return sql
 617
 618    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 619        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 620        if (
 621            not expression.parent
 622            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 623            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 624        ):
 625            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 626
 627            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 628
 629        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 630            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 631
 632            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 633
 634        return expression
 635
 636    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 637        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 638            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 639        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 640
 641    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 642        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 643
 644    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 645        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 646
 647    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 648        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 649        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 650        return comment
 651
 652    def maybe_comment(
 653        self,
 654        sql: str,
 655        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 656        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 657        separated: bool = False,
 658    ) -> str:
 659        comments = (
 660            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 661            if self.comments
 662            else None
 663        )
 664
 665        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 666            return sql
 667
 668        comments_sql = " ".join(
 669            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 670        )
 671
 672        if not comments_sql:
 673            return sql
 674
 675        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 676
 677        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 678            return (
 679                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 680                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 681                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 682            )
 683
 684        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 685
 686    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 687        this_sql = self.indent(
 688            (
 689                self.sql(expression)
 690                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 691                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 692            ),
 693            level=1,
 694            pad=0,
 695        )
 696        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 697
 698    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 699        original = self.identify
 700        self.identify = False
 701        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 702        self.identify = original
 703        return result
 704
 705    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 706        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 707            return name.upper()
 708        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 709            return name.lower()
 710        return name
 711
 712    def indent(
 713        self,
 714        sql: str,
 715        level: int = 0,
 716        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 717        skip_first: bool = False,
 718        skip_last: bool = False,
 719    ) -> str:
 720        if not self.pretty:
 721            return sql
 722
 723        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 724        lines = sql.split("\n")
 725
 726        return "\n".join(
 727            (
 728                line
 729                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 730                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 731            )
 732            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 733        )
 734
 735    def sql(
 736        self,
 737        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 738        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 739        comment: bool = True,
 740    ) -> str:
 741        if not expression:
 742            return ""
 743
 744        if isinstance(expression, str):
 745            return expression
 746
 747        if key:
 748            value = expression.args.get(key)
 749            if value:
 750                return self.sql(value)
 751            return ""
 752
 753        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 754
 755        if callable(transform):
 756            sql = transform(self, expression)
 757        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 758            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 759
 760            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 761                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 762            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 763                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 764            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 765                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 766            else:
 767                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 768        else:
 769            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 770
 771        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 772
 773    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 774        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 775        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 776        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 777
 778    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 779        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 780        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 781        options = expression.args.get("options")
 782        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 783        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 784        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 785        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 786        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 787
 788    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 789        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 790            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 791        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 792        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 793
 794    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 795        return ".".join(
 796            self.sql(part)
 797            for part in (
 798                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 799                expression.args.get("db"),
 800                expression.args.get("table"),
 801                expression.args.get("this"),
 802            )
 803            if part
 804        )
 805
 806    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 807        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 808
 809        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 810            join_mark = ""
 811            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 812
 813        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 814
 815    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 817        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 818        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 819        return f"{position}{this}"
 820
 821    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 822        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 823        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 824        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 825        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 826        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 827        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 828        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 829        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 830
 831        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 832            kind = ""
 833
 834        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 835
 836    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 839        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 840
 841    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 843        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 844            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 845        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 846            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 847        else:
 848            persisted = ""
 849        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 850
 851    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 852        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 853
 854    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 855        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 856            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 857        else:
 858            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 859
 860        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 861
 862    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 863        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 864    ) -> str:
 865        this = ""
 866        if expression.this is not None:
 867            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 868            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 869
 870        start = expression.args.get("start")
 871        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 872        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 873        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 874        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 875        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 876        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 877        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 878        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 879        cycle_sql = ""
 880
 881        if cycle is not None:
 882            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 883            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 884
 885        sequence_opts = ""
 886        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 887            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 888            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 889
 890        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 891        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 892
 893        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 894
 895    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 896        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 897    ) -> str:
 898        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 899        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 900        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 901
 902    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 903        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 904    ) -> str:
 905        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 906
 907    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 908        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 909
 910    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 911        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 912
 913    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 914        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 915        if desc is not None:
 916            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 917        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 918
 919    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 921        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 922        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 923        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 924        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 925        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 926        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 927
 928    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 929        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 930
 931    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 932        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 933        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 934        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 935
 936        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 937
 938        properties_sql = ""
 939        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 940            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 941        ):
 942            properties_sql = self.sql(
 943                exp.Properties(
 944                    expressions=[
 945                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 946                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 947                    ]
 948                )
 949            )
 950
 951        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 952        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 953
 954        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 955        if expression_sql:
 956            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 957
 958            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 959                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 960                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 961                        exp.Properties(
 962                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 963                        ),
 964                        wrapped=False,
 965                    )
 966                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 967                else:
 968                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 969
 970        postindex_props_sql = ""
 971        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 972            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 973                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 974                wrapped=False,
 975                prefix=" ",
 976            )
 977
 978        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 979        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 980        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 981
 982        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 983        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 984
 985        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 986        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 987            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 988                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 989                sep=" ",
 990                prefix=" ",
 991                wrapped=False,
 992            )
 993
 994        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 995
 996        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 997        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 998            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 999                exp.Properties(
1000                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1001                ),
1002                sep=" ",
1003                prefix=" ",
1004                wrapped=False,
1005            )
1006
1007        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1008        no_schema_binding = (
1009            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1010        )
1011
1012        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1013        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1014
1015        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1016        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1017
1018    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1019        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1020        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1021        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1022        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1023        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1024        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1025        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1026        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1027        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1028        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1029
1030        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1031        if cache is None:
1032            cache_str = ""
1033        elif cache is True:
1034            cache_str = " CACHE"
1035        else:
1036            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1037
1038        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1039        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1040
1041        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1042
1043    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1045        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1046        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1047        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1048
1049    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1050        style = expression.args.get("style")
1051        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1052        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1053
1054    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1055        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1056        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1057
1058    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1059        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1060        if with_:
1061            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1062        return sql
1063
1064    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1065        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1066        recursive = (
1067            "RECURSIVE "
1068            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1069            else ""
1070        )
1071
1072        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1073
1074    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1075        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1076
1077        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1078        if materialized is False:
1079            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1080        elif materialized:
1081            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1082
1083        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1084
1085    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1086        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1087        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1088        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1089
1090        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1091            columns = ""
1092            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1093
1094        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1095            alias = "_t"
1096
1097        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1098
1099    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1101        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1102            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1103        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1104
1105    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1107        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1108            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1109        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1110
1111    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1112        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1113        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1114            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1115        return this
1116
1117    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1119        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1120
1121        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1122            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1123            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1124
1125        if escape:
1126            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1127        else:
1128            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1129
1130        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1131        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1132
1133    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1134        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1135        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1136
1137    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1138        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1139        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1140        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1141        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1142
1143    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1144        type_value = expression.this
1145
1146        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1147            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1148        else:
1149            type_sql = (
1150                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1151                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1152                else type_value
1153            )
1154
1155        nested = ""
1156        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1157        values = ""
1158
1159        if interior:
1160            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1161                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1162                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1163                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1164                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1165                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1166            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1167                nested = f" {interior}"
1168            else:
1169                nested = f"({interior})"
1170
1171        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1172        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1173            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1174            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1175        ):
1176            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1177
1178        return type_sql
1179
1180    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1181        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1182        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1183        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1184        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1185
1186    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1188        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1189        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1190        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1191        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1192        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1193        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1194        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1195        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1196        if self.RETURNING_END:
1197            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1198        else:
1199            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1200        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1201
1202    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1204        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1205        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1206        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1207        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1208        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1209        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1210        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1211        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1212        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1213        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1214
1215    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1216        return self.set_operations(expression)
1217
1218    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1219        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1220
1221    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1222        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1223        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1224        count = expression.args.get("count")
1225        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1226        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1227            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1228        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1229        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1230
1231    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1232        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1233            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1235            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1236
1237        agg = expression.this
1238        agg_arg = agg.this
1239        cond = expression.expression.this
1240        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1241        return self.sql(agg)
1242
1243    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1244        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1245            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1246            return ""
1247
1248        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1249
1250    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1251        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1252        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1253        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1254        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1255        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1256        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1257        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1258        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1259        if include:
1260            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1261        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1262        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1263        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1264        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1265
1266        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1267
1268    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1269        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1270        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1271        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1272        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1273        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1274        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1275        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1276
1277        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1278
1279        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1280        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1281
1282    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1283        text = expression.name
1284        lower = text.lower()
1285        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1286        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1287        if (
1288            expression.quoted
1289            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1290            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1291            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1292        ):
1293            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1294        return text
1295
1296    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1297        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1298        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1299        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1300        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1301        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1302
1303    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1304        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1305        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1306
1307    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1308        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1309
1310    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1311        root_properties = []
1312        with_properties = []
1313
1314        for p in expression.expressions:
1315            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1316            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1317                with_properties.append(p)
1318            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1319                root_properties.append(p)
1320
1321        return self.root_properties(
1322            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1323        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1324
1325    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1326        if properties.expressions:
1327            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1328        return ""
1329
1330    def properties(
1331        self,
1332        properties: exp.Properties,
1333        prefix: str = "",
1334        sep: str = ", ",
1335        suffix: str = "",
1336        wrapped: bool = True,
1337    ) -> str:
1338        if properties.expressions:
1339            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1340            if expressions:
1341                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1342                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1343        return ""
1344
1345    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1346        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1347
1348    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1349        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1350        for p in properties.expressions:
1351            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1352            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1353                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1354            else:
1355                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1356
1357        return properties_locs
1358
1359    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1360        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1361            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1362        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1363
1364    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1365        property_cls = expression.__class__
1366        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1367            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1368
1369        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1370        if not property_name:
1371            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1372
1373        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1374
1375    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1376        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1377            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1378            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1379
1380            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1381            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1382                like = f"({like})"
1383
1384            return like
1385
1386        if expression.expressions:
1387            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1388
1389        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1390        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1391
1392    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1393        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1394        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1395        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1396
1397    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1398        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1399        local = expression.args.get("local")
1400        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1401        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1402        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1403        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1404        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1405
1406    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1407        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1408        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1409        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1410
1411    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1412        if expression.args.get("default"):
1413            property = "DEFAULT"
1414        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1415            property = "ON"
1416        else:
1417            property = "OFF"
1418        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1419
1420    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1421        if expression.args.get("no"):
1422            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1423        if expression.args.get("default"):
1424            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1425
1426        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1427        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1428
1429    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1430        default = expression.args.get("default")
1431        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1432        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1433        if default or minimum or maximum:
1434            if default:
1435                prop = "DEFAULT"
1436            elif minimum:
1437                prop = "MINIMUM"
1438            else:
1439                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1440            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1441        units = expression.args.get("units")
1442        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1443        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1444
1445    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1446        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1447        always = expression.args.get("always")
1448        default = expression.args.get("default")
1449        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1450        never = expression.args.get("never")
1451
1452        if autotemp is not None:
1453            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1454        elif always:
1455            prop = "ALWAYS"
1456        elif default:
1457            prop = "DEFAULT"
1458        elif manual:
1459            prop = "MANUAL"
1460        elif never:
1461            prop = "NEVER"
1462        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1463
1464    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1465        no = expression.args.get("no")
1466        no = " NO" if no else ""
1467        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1468        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1469        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1470        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1471        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1472
1473    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1474        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1475            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1476        if expression.this:
1477            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1478            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1479            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1480
1481        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1482        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1483        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1484
1485    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1487
1488        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1489        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1490            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1491        else:
1492            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1493
1494        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1495
1496    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1497        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1498        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1499        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1500        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1501        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1502        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1503        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1504
1505    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1506        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1507        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1508        statistics_sql = ""
1509        if statistics is not None:
1510            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1511        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1512
1513    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1514        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1515
1516        if expression.this:
1517            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1518            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1519
1520            if expression.expression:
1521                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1522                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1523
1524            sql = f"{sql})"
1525
1526        return f"{sql})"
1527
1528    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1529        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1530        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1531
1532        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1533            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1534        else:
1535            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1536
1537        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1538        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1539        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1540        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1541        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1542        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1543        if is_function:
1544            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1545        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1546
1547        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1548        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1549        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1550        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1551        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1552        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1553        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1554        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1555
1556        if self.RETURNING_END:
1557            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1558        else:
1559            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1560
1561        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1562        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1563
1564    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1565        return self.set_operations(expression)
1566
1567    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1568        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1569
1570    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1571        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1572
1573    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1574        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1575        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1578        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1579
1580    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1581        return expression.name
1582
1583    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1584        return expression.name
1585
1586    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1587        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1588
1589        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1590        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1591
1592        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1593        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1594        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1595
1596        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1597        if expressions:
1598            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1599            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1600
1601        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1602
1603    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1604        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1605
1606    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1607        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1608        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1609        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1610        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1611        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1612        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1613        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1614        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1615        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1616        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1617        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1618        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1619        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1620
1621    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1622        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1623
1624    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1625        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1626        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1627        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1628        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1629
1630    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1632        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1633        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1634        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1635
1636    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1637        return ".".join(
1638            self.sql(part)
1639            for part in (
1640                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1641                expression.args.get("db"),
1642                expression.args.get("this"),
1643            )
1644            if part is not None
1645        )
1646
1647    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1648        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1649        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1650        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1651        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1652        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1653        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1654        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1655        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1656        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1657        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1658        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1659        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1660        joins = self.indent(
1661            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1662        )
1663        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1664
1665        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1666        if file_format:
1667            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1668            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1669            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1670
1671        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1672        if ordinality:
1673            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1674            alias = ""
1675
1676        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1677        if when:
1678            table = f"{table} {when}"
1679
1680        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1681
1682    def tablesample_sql(
1683        self,
1684        expression: exp.TableSample,
1685        sep: str = " AS ",
1686        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1687    ) -> str:
1688        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1689            table = expression.this.copy()
1690            table.set("alias", None)
1691            this = self.sql(table)
1692            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1693        else:
1694            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695            alias = ""
1696
1697        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1698        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1699        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1700        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1701        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1702        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1703        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1704        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1705        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1706
1707        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1708        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1709            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1710
1711        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1712        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1713            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1714
1715        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1716        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1717            expr = f"({expr})"
1718
1719        return (
1720            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1721        )
1722
1723    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1724        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1725
1726        if expression.this:
1727            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728            if not expressions:
1729                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1730
1731            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1732            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1733            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1734            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1735            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1736
1737        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1738        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1739        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1740        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1741        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1742        if include_nulls is not None:
1743            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1744        else:
1745            nulls = ""
1746        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1747
1748    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1749        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1750        kind = expression.text("kind")
1751        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1752        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1753
1754    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1755        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1756
1757    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1759        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1760        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1761        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1762        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1763        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1764        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1765        if self.RETURNING_END:
1766            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1767        else:
1768            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1769        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1770        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1771
1772    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1773        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1774
1775        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1776        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1777            args = self.expressions(expression)
1778            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1779            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1780            values = (
1781                f"({values})"
1782                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1783                else values
1784            )
1785            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1786
1787        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1788        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1789        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1790
1791        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1792
1793        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1794            row = tup.expressions
1795
1796            if i == 0 and column_names:
1797                row = [
1798                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1799                ]
1800
1801            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1802
1803        if self.pretty:
1804            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1805            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1806            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1807            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1808            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1809
1810        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1811        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1812        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1813
1814    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1815        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1816
1817    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1818        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1819        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1820        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1821
1822    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1823        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1824
1825    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1826        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1827        if group_by_all is True:
1828            modifier = " ALL"
1829        elif group_by_all is False:
1830            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1831        else:
1832            modifier = ""
1833
1834        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1835
1836        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1837        grouping_sets = (
1838            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1839        )
1840
1841        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1842        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1843            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1844        else:
1845            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1846            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1847
1848        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1849        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1850            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1851        else:
1852            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1853            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1854
1855        groupings = csv(
1856            grouping_sets,
1857            cube_sql,
1858            rollup_sql,
1859            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1860            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1861        )
1862
1863        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1864            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1865
1866        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1867
1868    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1869        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1870        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1871
1872    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1873        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1874        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1875        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1876        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1877        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1878        return start + connect
1879
1880    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1881        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1882
1883    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1884        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1885            side = None
1886        else:
1887            side = expression.side
1888
1889        op_sql = " ".join(
1890            op
1891            for op in (
1892                expression.method,
1893                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1894                side,
1895                expression.kind,
1896                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1897            )
1898            if op
1899        )
1900        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1901        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1902        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1903        using = expression.args.get("using")
1904
1905        if not on_sql and using:
1906            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1907
1908        this = expression.this
1909        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1910
1911        if on_sql:
1912            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1913            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1914            if using:
1915                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1916            else:
1917                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1918        elif not op_sql:
1919            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1920                return f" {this_sql}"
1921
1922            return f", {this_sql}"
1923
1924        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1925        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1926
1927    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1928        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1929        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1930        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1931
1932    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1933        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1934
1935        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1936        if cross_apply is True:
1937            op = "INNER JOIN "
1938        elif cross_apply is False:
1939            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1940        else:
1941            op = ""
1942
1943        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1944
1945    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947
1948        if expression.args.get("view"):
1949            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1950            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1951            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1952            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1953            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1954            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1955
1956        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1957        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1958        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1959
1960    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962
1963        args = [
1964            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1965            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1966            if e
1967        ]
1968
1969        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1970        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1972        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1973
1974        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1975
1976    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1978        value = expression.expression
1979        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1982        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1983
1984    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1985        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1986        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1988        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1989        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1990        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1991        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1992        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1993
1994    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1995        expressions = (
1996            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1997        )
1998        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1999        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2000
2001    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2002        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2003
2004    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2005        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2006            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2007            return ""
2008
2009        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2010        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2011        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2012        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2013
2014        if wait is not None:
2015            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2016                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2017            else:
2018                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2019
2020        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2021
2022    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2023        text = expression.this or ""
2024        if expression.is_string:
2025            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2026        return text
2027
2028    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2029        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2030            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2031            text = "".join(
2032                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2033            )
2034
2035        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2036            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2037        )
2038
2039    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2040        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2041        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2042        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2043        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2044        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2045        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2046        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2047        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2048        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2049        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2050        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2051
2052    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2053        return "NULL"
2054
2055    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2056        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2057
2058    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2060        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2061        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2062        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2063        interpolated_values = [
2064            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2065            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2066        ]
2067        interpolate = (
2068            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2069        )
2070        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2071
2072    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2073        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2074        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2075        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2076        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2077        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2078        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2079        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2080
2081    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2082        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2083
2084    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2085        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2086
2087    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2088        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2089
2090    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2091        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2092        asc = not desc
2093
2094        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2095        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2096        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2097        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2098        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2099
2100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2101
2102        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2103        nulls_sort_change = ""
2104        if nulls_first and (
2105            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2106        ):
2107            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2108        elif (
2109            nulls_last
2110            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2111            and not nulls_are_last
2112        ):
2113            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2114
2115        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2116        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2117            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2118            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2119                self.unsupported(
2120                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2121                )
2122                nulls_sort_change = ""
2123            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2124                if expression.this.is_int:
2125                    self.unsupported(
2126                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2127                    )
2128                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2129                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2130                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2131                nulls_sort_change = ""
2132
2133        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2134        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2135
2136        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2137
2138    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2139        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2140        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2141
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143
2144        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2145
2146    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2147        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2148        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2149        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2150        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2151        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2152        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2153        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2154        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2155        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2156        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2157        definition_sqls = [
2158            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2159            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2160        ]
2161        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2162        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2163        body = "".join(
2164            (
2165                partition,
2166                order,
2167                measures,
2168                rows,
2169                after,
2170                pattern,
2171                define,
2172            )
2173        )
2174        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2175        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2176        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2177
2178    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2179        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2180
2181        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2182            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2183        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2184            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2185
2186        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2187        if options:
2188            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2189
2190        return csv(
2191            *sqls,
2192            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2193            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2194            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2195            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2196            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2197            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2198            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2199            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2200            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2201            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2202            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2203            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2204            options,
2205            sep="",
2206        )
2207
2208    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2209        return ""
2210
2211    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2212        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2213    ) -> t.List[str]:
2214        return [
2215            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2216            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2217        ]
2218
2219    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2220        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2221        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2222        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2223
2224    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2225        into = expression.args.get("into")
2226        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2227            into.pop()
2228
2229        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2230        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2231        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2232        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2233
2234        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2235        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2236            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2237            limit.pop()
2238        else:
2239            top = ""
2240
2241        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2242
2243        if kind:
2244            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2245                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2246            else:
2247                if kind == "STRUCT":
2248                    expressions = self.expressions(
2249                        sqls=[
2250                            self.sql(
2251                                exp.Struct(
2252                                    expressions=[
2253                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2254                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2255                                        else e
2256                                        for e in expression.expressions
2257                                    ]
2258                                )
2259                            )
2260                        ]
2261                    )
2262                kind = ""
2263
2264        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2265        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2266        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2267        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2268        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2269            expression,
2270            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2271            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2272            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2273        )
2274
2275        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2276
2277        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2278            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2279                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2280            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2281                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2282            else:
2283                table_kind = ""
2284            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2285
2286        return sql
2287
2288    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2290        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2291        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2292
2293    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2294        if expression.expressions:
2295            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2296        return ""
2297
2298    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2299        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2300        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2301        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2302        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2303        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2304
2305    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2306        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2307        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2308
2309    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2311        kind = expression.text("kind")
2312        if kind:
2313            kind = f"{kind}."
2314        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2315
2316    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2317        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2318
2319    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2320        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2321        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2322
2323        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2324        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2325
2326        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2327        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2328
2329    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2330        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2331        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2332
2333    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2334        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2335            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2336            order = expression.args.get("order")
2337
2338            if limit or order:
2339                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2340
2341                if limit:
2342                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2343                if order:
2344                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2345                return self.sql(select)
2346
2347        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2348        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2349
2350        while stack:
2351            node = stack.pop()
2352
2353            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2354                stack.append(node.expression)
2355                stack.append(
2356                    self.maybe_comment(
2357                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2358                        comments=node.comments,
2359                        separated=True,
2360                    )
2361                )
2362                stack.append(node.this)
2363            else:
2364                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2365
2366        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2367        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2368        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2369
2370    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2371        return self.set_operations(expression)
2372
2373    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2374        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2375        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2376        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2377        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2378
2379    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2380        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2381
2382        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2383        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2384
2385        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2386            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2387                alias.append("columns", offset)
2388
2389        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2390            columns = alias.columns
2391            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2392        else:
2393            alias = self.sql(alias)
2394
2395        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2396        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2397            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2398        else:
2399            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2400                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2401            elif offset:
2402                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2403            else:
2404                suffix = alias
2405
2406        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2407
2408    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2409        return ""
2410
2411    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2412        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2413        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2414
2415    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2418        order = expression.args.get("order")
2419        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2420        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2421        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2422        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2423
2424        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2425
2426        first = expression.args.get("first")
2427        if first is None:
2428            first = ""
2429        else:
2430            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2431
2432        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2433            return f"{this} {alias}"
2434
2435        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2436        return f"{this} ({args})"
2437
2438    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2439        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2440        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2441
2442    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2443        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2444        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2445        end = (
2446            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2447            or "CURRENT ROW"
2448        )
2449        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2450
2451    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2452        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2453        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2454        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2455
2456    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2457        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2458        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2459        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2460        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2461
2462    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2463        return apply_index_offset(
2464            expression.this,
2465            expression.expressions,
2466            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2467        )
2468
2469    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2470        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2471        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2472        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2473
2474    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2475        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2476
2477    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2479        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2480            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2481                this = self.wrap(this)
2482            return f"ANY{this}"
2483        return f"ANY {this}"
2484
2485    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2486        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2487
2488    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2490        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2491
2492        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2493            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2494            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2495
2496        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2497
2498        if default:
2499            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2500
2501        statements.append("END")
2502
2503        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2504            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2505
2506        return " ".join(statements)
2507
2508    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2509        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2510        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2511        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2512
2513    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2514        order = expression.args.get("order")
2515        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2516        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2517
2518    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2519        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2520        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2521        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2522
2523    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2524        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2525
2526        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2527            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2528        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2529            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2530        else:
2531            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2532
2533    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2534        args = expression.expressions
2535        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2536            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2537
2538        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2539            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2540
2541        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2542            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2543
2544        return args
2545
2546    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2547        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2548
2549        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2550        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2551            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2552
2553        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2554
2555    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2556        return self.func(
2557            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2558        )
2559
2560    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2561        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2562        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2563
2564    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2565        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2566        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2567        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2568        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2569        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2570        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2571        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2572        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2573
2574    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2575        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2576        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2577        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2578        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2579
2580    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2581        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2582
2583    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2584        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2585        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2586        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2587
2588    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2589        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2590
2591    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2592        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2593        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2594
2595    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2596        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2597            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2598            if not callable(transform):
2599                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2600                return ""
2601
2602            return transform(self, expression)
2603
2604        if isinstance(expression, int):
2605            return str(expression)
2606
2607        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2608            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2609            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2610        else:
2611            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2612            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2613
2614        return escaped
2615
2616    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2617        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2618
2619    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2620        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2621        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2622
2623        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2624        if unique_keys is not None:
2625            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2626        else:
2627            unique_keys = ""
2628
2629        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2630        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2631        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2632        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2633
2634        return self.func(
2635            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2636            *expression.expressions,
2637            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2638        )
2639
2640    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2641        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2642
2643    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2644        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2645        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2646        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2647        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2648        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2649        return self.func(
2650            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2651        )
2652
2653    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2655        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2656        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2657        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2658        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2659        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2660        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2661        return self.func(
2662            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2663            this,
2664            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2665        )
2666
2667    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2668        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2669        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2670        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2671
2672        if nested_schema:
2673            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2674
2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2676        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2677        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2678        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2679
2680    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2681        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2682
2683    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2685        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2686        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2687        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2688        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2689        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2690        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2691        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2692        return self.func(
2693            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2694        )
2695
2696    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2698        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2699        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2700        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2701        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2702        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2703
2704    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2706        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2707        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2708        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2709        with_ = (
2710            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2711            if expressions
2712            else ""
2713        )
2714        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2715
2716    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2717        query = expression.args.get("query")
2718        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2719        field = expression.args.get("field")
2720        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2721
2722        if query:
2723            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2724        elif unnest:
2725            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2726        elif field:
2727            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2728        else:
2729            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2730
2731        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2732
2733    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2734        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2735
2736    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2737        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2738        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2739            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2740        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2741
2742        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2743            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2744            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2745
2746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2747        if this:
2748            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2749            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2750
2751        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2752
2753    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2754        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2755
2756    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2758        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2759        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2760        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2761        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2762        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2763
2764    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2765        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2766
2767    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2768        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2769        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2770
2771    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2772        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2773        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2774        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2775        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2776
2777    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2778        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2779
2780    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2781        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2782        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2783        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2784
2785    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2786        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2787        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2788
2789        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2790            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2791        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2792            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2793
2794        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2795
2796    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2797        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2798
2799    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2801        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2802        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2803
2804    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2806        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2807        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2808
2809    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2811        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2812        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2813
2814    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2815        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2816
2817    def and_sql(
2818        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2819    ) -> str:
2820        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2821
2822    def or_sql(
2823        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2824    ) -> str:
2825        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2826
2827    def xor_sql(
2828        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2829    ) -> str:
2830        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2831
2832    def connector_sql(
2833        self,
2834        expression: exp.Connector,
2835        op: str,
2836        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2837    ) -> str:
2838        if stack is not None:
2839            if expression.expressions:
2840                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2841            else:
2842                stack.append(expression.right)
2843                if expression.comments:
2844                    for comment in expression.comments:
2845                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2846                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2847            return op
2848
2849        stack = [expression]
2850        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2851        ops = set()
2852
2853        while stack:
2854            node = stack.pop()
2855            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2856                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2857            else:
2858                sql = self.sql(node)
2859                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2860                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2861                else:
2862                    sqls.append(sql)
2863
2864        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2865        return sep.join(sqls)
2866
2867    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2868        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2869
2870    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2871        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2872
2873    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2874        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2875
2876    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2877        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2878
2879    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2880        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2881
2882    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2883        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2884
2885    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2886        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2887        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2888        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2889        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2890        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2891        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2892        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2893
2894    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2895        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2896        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2897
2898    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2899        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2900
2901    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2902        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2903            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2904        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2905
2906    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2907        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2908
2909    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2911        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2912        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2913        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2914        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2915        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2916
2917    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2919        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2920        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2921        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2922        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2923        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2924        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2925        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2926        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2927
2928    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2929        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2930        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2931        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2932        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2933
2934        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2935            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2936
2937        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2938
2939    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2940        return "BEGIN"
2941
2942    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2943        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2944        if chain is not None:
2945            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2946
2947        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2948
2949    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2950        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2951        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2952        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2953
2954    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2956
2957        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2958        if dtype:
2959            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2960            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2961            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2962            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2963            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2964
2965        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2966        if default:
2967            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2968
2969        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2970        if comment:
2971            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2972
2973        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2974            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2975
2976        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2977
2978    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2979        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2980            # Remove db from tables
2981            expression = expression.transform(
2982                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2983            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2985        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2986
2987    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2988        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2989        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2991        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2992
2993    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2994        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2995
2996        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2997            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2998        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2999            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3000        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3001            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3002        else:
3003            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3004
3005        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3006        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3007        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3008        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3009        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
3010
3011    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3012        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3013            return self.expressions(
3014                expression,
3015                key="actions",
3016                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3017            )
3018        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3019
3020    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3021        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3022        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3023        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3024
3025    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3026        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3027
3028    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3029        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3030
3031        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3032            case = exp.case()
3033            for arg in expression.expressions:
3034                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3035            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3036
3037        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3038
3039        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3040        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3041        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3042
3043    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3044        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3045
3046    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3047        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3048
3049    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3050        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3051        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3052        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3053        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3054
3055    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3056        return self.sql(
3057            exp.Cast(
3058                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3059                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3060            )
3061        )
3062
3063    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3064        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3065            return self.func(
3066                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3067            )
3068        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3069
3070    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3071        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3072
3073        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3074            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3075
3076        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3077            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3078                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3079
3080        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3081            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3082                return self.sql(
3083                    exp.cast(
3084                        l / r,
3085                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3086                    )
3087                )
3088
3089        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3090
3091    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3093
3094    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3096
3097    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3098        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3099
3100    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3102
3103    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3105
3106    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3108
3109    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3111
3112    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3114
3115    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3117
3118    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3119        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3120
3121    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3122        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3123
3124    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3125        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3126            return self.sql(
3127                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3128            )
3129        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3130
3131    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3133
3134    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3135        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3136
3137    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3139
3140    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3142
3143    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3145
3146    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3147        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3148
3149    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3150        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3151
3152    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3153        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3154
3155    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3157
3158    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3159        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3160
3161    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3162        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3163
3164    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3165        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3166
3167    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3168        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3169
3170    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3171        this = expression.this
3172        expr = expression.expression
3173
3174        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3175            this, expr = expr, this
3176        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3177            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3178                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3179
3180            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3181
3182        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3183
3184    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3185        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3186        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3188        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3189        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3190
3191    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3192        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3193        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3194
3195    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3196        args = []
3197
3198        for key in expression.arg_types:
3199            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3200
3201            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3202                for value in arg_value:
3203                    args.append(value)
3204            elif arg_value is not None:
3205                args.append(arg_value)
3206
3207        if self.normalize_functions:
3208            name = expression.sql_name()
3209        else:
3210            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3211
3212        return self.func(name, *args)
3213
3214    def func(
3215        self,
3216        name: str,
3217        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3218        prefix: str = "(",
3219        suffix: str = ")",
3220    ) -> str:
3221        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3222
3223    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3224        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3225        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3226            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3227        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3228
3229    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3230        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3231
3232    def format_time(
3233        self,
3234        expression: exp.Expression,
3235        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3236        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3237    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3238        return format_time(
3239            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3240            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3241            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3242        )
3243
3244    def expressions(
3245        self,
3246        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3247        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3248        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3249        flat: bool = False,
3250        indent: bool = True,
3251        skip_first: bool = False,
3252        skip_last: bool = False,
3253        sep: str = ", ",
3254        prefix: str = "",
3255        dynamic: bool = False,
3256        new_line: bool = False,
3257    ) -> str:
3258        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3259
3260        if not expressions:
3261            return ""
3262
3263        if flat:
3264            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3265
3266        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3267
3268        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3269        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3270            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3271
3272        result_sqls = []
3273        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3274            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3275            if not sql:
3276                continue
3277
3278            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3279
3280            if self.pretty:
3281                if self.leading_comma:
3282                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3283                else:
3284                    result_sqls.append(
3285                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3286                    )
3287            else:
3288                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3289
3290        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3291            if new_line:
3292                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3293                result_sqls.append("")
3294            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3295        else:
3296            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3297        return (
3298            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3299            if indent
3300            else result_sql
3301        )
3302
3303    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3304        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3305        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3306        if flat:
3307            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3308        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3309
3310    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3311        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3312        if not property_name:
3313            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3314        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3315
3316    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3317        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3318
3319    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3320        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3321
3322    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3324        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3325        expressions = (
3326            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3327        )
3328        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3329
3330    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3332        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3333        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3334
3335    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3336        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3337
3338    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3339        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3340        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3341        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3342        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3343
3344        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3345        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3346            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3347            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3348                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3349        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3350            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3351                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3352            else:
3353                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3354        else:
3355            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3356        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3357
3358    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3359        table = expression.this
3360        table_alias = ""
3361
3362        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3363        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3364            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3365            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3366
3367        this = self.sql(table)
3368        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3369        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3370        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3371
3372        return self.prepend_ctes(
3373            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3374        )
3375
3376    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3377        if expression.args.get("format"):
3378            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3379
3380        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3381
3382    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3383        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3384            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3385            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3386
3387        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3388        if not fmt:
3389            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3390            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3391
3392        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3393
3394    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3396        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3397        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3398        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3399        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3400
3401    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3403        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3404        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3405        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3406
3407    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3408        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3409
3410    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3411        return ""
3412
3413    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3414        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3415        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3416        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3417        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3418        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3419
3420    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3422        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3423
3424        if having:
3425            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3426
3427        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3428
3429    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3430        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3431        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3432        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3433        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3434        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3435        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3436        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3437        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3438        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3439        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3440        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3441        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3442        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3443
3444    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3445        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3446        if key_block_size:
3447            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3448
3449        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3450        if using:
3451            return f"USING {using}"
3452
3453        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3454        if parser:
3455            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3456
3457        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3458        if comment:
3459            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3460
3461        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3462        if visible is not None:
3463            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3464
3465        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3466        if engine_attr:
3467            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3468
3469        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3470        if secondary_engine_attr:
3471            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3472
3473        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3474        return ""
3475
3476    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3477        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3478        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3479
3480    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3481        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3482        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3484        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3485        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3486        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3487        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3488        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3489        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3490        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3491        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3492
3493    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3494        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3495            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3496
3497        case = exp.Case().when(
3498            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3499            expression.args["true"],
3500            copy=False,
3501        )
3502        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3503        if else_cond:
3504            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3505
3506        return self.sql(case)
3507
3508    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3509        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3510        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3511        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3512        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3513        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3514        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3515
3516    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3517        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3518
3519    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3520        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3521
3522    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3523        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3524        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3525        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3526        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3527        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3528        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3529
3530    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3532        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3533        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3534
3535    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3537        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3538        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3539
3540    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3541        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3542
3543    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3544        arg = expression.this
3545        if not arg.type:
3546            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3547
3548            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3549
3550        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3551            return self.sql(arg)
3552
3553        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3554        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3555
3556    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3557        this = expression.this
3558        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3559            return self.sql(this)
3560
3561        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3562
3563    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3564        this = expression.this
3565        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3566            return self.sql(this)
3567
3568        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3569
3570    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3571        this = expression.this
3572        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3573
3574        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3575            return self.sql(
3576                exp.cast(
3577                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3578                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3579                )
3580            )
3581
3582        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3583            return self.sql(this)
3584
3585        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3586
3587    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3588        return self.sql(
3589            exp.func(
3590                "DATEDIFF",
3591                expression.this,
3592                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3593                "day",
3594            )
3595        )
3596
3597    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3598        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3599            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3600
3601        unit = expression.text("unit")
3602        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3603            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3604
3605        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3606
3607    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3608        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3609
3610        return self.func(
3611            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3612        )
3613
3614    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3615        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3616            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3617            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3618            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3619            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3620
3621        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3622
3623        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3624        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3625            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3626
3627        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3628
3629    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3630        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3631        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3632
3633    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3634        expression.set(
3635            "expressions",
3636            [
3637                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3638                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3639                else e
3640                for e in expression.expressions
3641            ],
3642        )
3643
3644        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3645
3646    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3647        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3648        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3649
3650        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3651
3652    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3653        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3654        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3655
3656        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3657
3658        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3659        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3660
3661        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3662        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3663
3664        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3665        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3666
3667        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3668        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3669
3670        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3671
3672    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3673    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3674    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3675        to = expression.this
3676        value = expression.expression
3677        style = expression.args.get("style")
3678        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3679        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3680
3681        if not to or not value:
3682            return ""
3683
3684        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3685        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3686            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3687
3688        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3689        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3690
3691        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3692        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3693            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3694
3695            style_value = style.name
3696            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3697            if not converted_style:
3698                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3699
3700            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3701
3702            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3703                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3704            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3705                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3706            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3707                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3708            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3709                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3710
3711        if not transformed:
3712            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3713
3714        return self.sql(transformed)
3715
3716    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3717        this = expression.this
3718        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3719            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3720            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3721
3722        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3723            return f".{this}"
3724
3725        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3726        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3727
3728    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3729        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3730        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3731
3732    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3733        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3734            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3735
3736            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3737
3738        return expression
3739
3740    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3741        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3742            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3743            mods = sorted(
3744                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3745                key=lambda x: 0
3746                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3747                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3748            )
3749
3750            if mods:
3751                mod = mods[0]
3752                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3753                this.meta["inline"] = True
3754                mod.this.replace(this)
3755                return self.sql(expression.this)
3756
3757            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3758
3759            if agg_func:
3760                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3761
3762        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3763
3764    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3765        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3766        if self.pretty:
3767            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3768        return string
3769
3770    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3771        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3772        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3773
3774        if not value:
3775            return option
3776
3777        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3778
3779        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3780
3781    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3782        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3783        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3784            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3785            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3786            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}"
3787        else:
3788            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3789            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3790            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3791
3792        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3793        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3794
3795        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3796        encryption = f"ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3797
3798        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3799        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3800
3801        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3802        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3803
3804        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3805
3806    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3808        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3809
3810        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3811        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3812
3813        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3814        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3815
3816        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3817        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3818        if params:
3819            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3820
3821        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  94        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 151    }
 152
 153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 156
 157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 160
 161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # Always do union distinct or union all
 165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 166
 167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 169
 170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 172
 173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 175
 176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 178
 179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 184
 185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 187
 188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 190
 191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 193
 194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 196
 197    # Whether join hints should be generated
 198    JOIN_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether table hints should be generated
 201    TABLE_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # Whether query hints should be generated
 204    QUERY_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 208
 209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 211
 212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 214
 215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 217
 218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 219    RETURNING_END = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 226
 227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 229
 230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 235
 236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 243
 244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 246
 247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 249
 250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 252
 253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 255
 256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 258
 259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 261
 262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 264
 265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 267
 268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 270
 271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 273
 274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 276
 277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 279
 280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 282
 283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 285
 286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 288
 289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 291
 292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 294
 295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 297
 298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 300
 301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 303
 304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 306
 307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 309
 310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 315
 316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 319
 320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 322
 323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 325
 326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 328
 329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 331
 332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 334
 335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 337
 338    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 339    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 340    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 341    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 342
 343    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 344    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 345
 346    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 347    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 348
 349    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 350    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 351
 352    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 353        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 354        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 355        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 356        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 357        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 358        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 359        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 360        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 361        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 362        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 363    }
 364
 365    STAR_MAPPING = {
 366        "except": "EXCEPT",
 367        "replace": "REPLACE",
 368    }
 369
 370    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 371        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 372        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 373        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 374        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 375        "DAYS": "DAY",
 376        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 377        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 378        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 379        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 380    }
 381
 382    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 383        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 384        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 385        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 386        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 387        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 388            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 389            if e.args.get("windows")
 390            else ""
 391        ),
 392    }
 393
 394    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 395
 396    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 397
 398    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 399    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 400
 401    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 402        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 403        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 407        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 409        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 414        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 415        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 422        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 423        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 424        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 425        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 426        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 427        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 429        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 431        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 432        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 437        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 438        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 439        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 440        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 441        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 443        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 446        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 449        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 462        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 463        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 466        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 468        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 470        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 473        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 475        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 476        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 477        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478    }
 479
 480    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 481    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 482
 483    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 484    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 485        exp.Create,
 486        exp.Delete,
 487        exp.Drop,
 488        exp.From,
 489        exp.Insert,
 490        exp.Join,
 491        exp.Select,
 492        exp.Union,
 493        exp.Update,
 494        exp.Where,
 495        exp.With,
 496    )
 497
 498    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 499    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 500        exp.Binary,
 501        exp.Union,
 502    )
 503
 504    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 505    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 506        exp.Column,
 507        exp.Literal,
 508        exp.Neg,
 509        exp.Paren,
 510    )
 511
 512    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 513        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 514        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 515        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 516        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 517    }
 518
 519    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 520    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 521
 522    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 523
 524    __slots__ = (
 525        "pretty",
 526        "identify",
 527        "normalize",
 528        "pad",
 529        "_indent",
 530        "normalize_functions",
 531        "unsupported_level",
 532        "max_unsupported",
 533        "leading_comma",
 534        "max_text_width",
 535        "comments",
 536        "dialect",
 537        "unsupported_messages",
 538        "_escaped_quote_end",
 539        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 540    )
 541
 542    def __init__(
 543        self,
 544        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 545        identify: str | bool = False,
 546        normalize: bool = False,
 547        pad: int = 2,
 548        indent: int = 2,
 549        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 550        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 551        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 552        leading_comma: bool = False,
 553        max_text_width: int = 80,
 554        comments: bool = True,
 555        dialect: DialectType = None,
 556    ):
 557        import sqlglot
 558        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 559
 560        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 561        self.identify = identify
 562        self.normalize = normalize
 563        self.pad = pad
 564        self._indent = indent
 565        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 566        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 567        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 568        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 569        self.comments = comments
 570        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 571
 572        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 573        self.normalize_functions = (
 574            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 575        )
 576
 577        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 578        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 579            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 580        )
 581        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 582            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 583        )
 584
 585    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 586        """
 587        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 588
 589        Args:
 590            expression: The syntax tree.
 591            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 592                it is safer to copy.
 593
 594        Returns:
 595            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 596        """
 597        if copy:
 598            expression = expression.copy()
 599
 600        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 601
 602        self.unsupported_messages = []
 603        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 604
 605        if self.pretty:
 606            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 607
 608        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 609            return sql
 610
 611        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 612            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 613                logger.warning(msg)
 614        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 615            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 616
 617        return sql
 618
 619    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 620        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 621        if (
 622            not expression.parent
 623            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 624            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 625        ):
 626            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 627
 628            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 629
 630        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 631            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 632
 633            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 634
 635        return expression
 636
 637    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 638        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 639            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 640        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 641
 642    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 643        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 644
 645    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 646        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 647
 648    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 649        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 650        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 651        return comment
 652
 653    def maybe_comment(
 654        self,
 655        sql: str,
 656        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 657        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 658        separated: bool = False,
 659    ) -> str:
 660        comments = (
 661            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 662            if self.comments
 663            else None
 664        )
 665
 666        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 667            return sql
 668
 669        comments_sql = " ".join(
 670            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 671        )
 672
 673        if not comments_sql:
 674            return sql
 675
 676        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 677
 678        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 679            return (
 680                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 681                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 682                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 683            )
 684
 685        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 686
 687    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 688        this_sql = self.indent(
 689            (
 690                self.sql(expression)
 691                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 692                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 693            ),
 694            level=1,
 695            pad=0,
 696        )
 697        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 698
 699    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 700        original = self.identify
 701        self.identify = False
 702        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 703        self.identify = original
 704        return result
 705
 706    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 707        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 708            return name.upper()
 709        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 710            return name.lower()
 711        return name
 712
 713    def indent(
 714        self,
 715        sql: str,
 716        level: int = 0,
 717        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 718        skip_first: bool = False,
 719        skip_last: bool = False,
 720    ) -> str:
 721        if not self.pretty:
 722            return sql
 723
 724        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 725        lines = sql.split("\n")
 726
 727        return "\n".join(
 728            (
 729                line
 730                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 731                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 732            )
 733            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 734        )
 735
 736    def sql(
 737        self,
 738        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 739        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 740        comment: bool = True,
 741    ) -> str:
 742        if not expression:
 743            return ""
 744
 745        if isinstance(expression, str):
 746            return expression
 747
 748        if key:
 749            value = expression.args.get(key)
 750            if value:
 751                return self.sql(value)
 752            return ""
 753
 754        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 755
 756        if callable(transform):
 757            sql = transform(self, expression)
 758        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 759            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 760
 761            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 762                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 763            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 764                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 765            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 766                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 767            else:
 768                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 769        else:
 770            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 771
 772        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 773
 774    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 775        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 776        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 777        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 778
 779    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 780        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 781        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 782        options = expression.args.get("options")
 783        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 784        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 785        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 786        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 787        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 788
 789    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 790        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 791            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 792        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 793        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 794
 795    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 796        return ".".join(
 797            self.sql(part)
 798            for part in (
 799                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 800                expression.args.get("db"),
 801                expression.args.get("table"),
 802                expression.args.get("this"),
 803            )
 804            if part
 805        )
 806
 807    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 808        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 809
 810        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 811            join_mark = ""
 812            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 813
 814        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 815
 816    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 818        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 819        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 820        return f"{position}{this}"
 821
 822    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 823        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 824        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 825        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 826        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 827        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 828        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 829        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 830        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 831
 832        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 833            kind = ""
 834
 835        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 836
 837    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 840        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 841
 842    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 845            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 846        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 847            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 848        else:
 849            persisted = ""
 850        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 851
 852    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 853        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 854
 855    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 856        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 857            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 858        else:
 859            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 860
 861        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 862
 863    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 864        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 865    ) -> str:
 866        this = ""
 867        if expression.this is not None:
 868            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 869            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 870
 871        start = expression.args.get("start")
 872        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 873        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 874        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 875        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 876        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 877        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 878        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 879        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 880        cycle_sql = ""
 881
 882        if cycle is not None:
 883            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 884            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 885
 886        sequence_opts = ""
 887        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 888            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 889            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 890
 891        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 892        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 893
 894        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 895
 896    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 897        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 898    ) -> str:
 899        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 900        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 901        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 902
 903    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 904        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 905    ) -> str:
 906        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 907
 908    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 909        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 910
 911    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 912        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 913
 914    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 915        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 916        if desc is not None:
 917            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 918        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 919
 920    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 923        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 924        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 925        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 926        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 927        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 928
 929    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 930        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 931
 932    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 933        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 934        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 935        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 936
 937        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 938
 939        properties_sql = ""
 940        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 941            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 942        ):
 943            properties_sql = self.sql(
 944                exp.Properties(
 945                    expressions=[
 946                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 947                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 948                    ]
 949                )
 950            )
 951
 952        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 953        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 954
 955        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 956        if expression_sql:
 957            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 958
 959            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 960                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 961                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 962                        exp.Properties(
 963                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 964                        ),
 965                        wrapped=False,
 966                    )
 967                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 968                else:
 969                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 970
 971        postindex_props_sql = ""
 972        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 973            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 974                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 975                wrapped=False,
 976                prefix=" ",
 977            )
 978
 979        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 980        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 981        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 982
 983        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 984        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 985
 986        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 987        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 988            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 989                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 990                sep=" ",
 991                prefix=" ",
 992                wrapped=False,
 993            )
 994
 995        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 996
 997        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 998        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 999            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1000                exp.Properties(
1001                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1002                ),
1003                sep=" ",
1004                prefix=" ",
1005                wrapped=False,
1006            )
1007
1008        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1009        no_schema_binding = (
1010            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1011        )
1012
1013        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1014        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1015
1016        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1017        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1018
1019    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1020        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1021        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1022        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1023        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1024        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1025        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1026        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1027        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1028        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1029        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1030
1031        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1032        if cache is None:
1033            cache_str = ""
1034        elif cache is True:
1035            cache_str = " CACHE"
1036        else:
1037            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1038
1039        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1040        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1041
1042        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1043
1044    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1046        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1047        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1048        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1049
1050    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1051        style = expression.args.get("style")
1052        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1053        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1054
1055    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1056        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1057        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1058
1059    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1060        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1061        if with_:
1062            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1063        return sql
1064
1065    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1066        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1067        recursive = (
1068            "RECURSIVE "
1069            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1070            else ""
1071        )
1072
1073        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1074
1075    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1076        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1077
1078        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1079        if materialized is False:
1080            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1081        elif materialized:
1082            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1083
1084        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1085
1086    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1087        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1089        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1090
1091        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1092            columns = ""
1093            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1094
1095        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1096            alias = "_t"
1097
1098        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1099
1100    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1102        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1103            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1104        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1105
1106    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1108        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1109            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1110        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1111
1112    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1115            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1116        return this
1117
1118    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1121
1122        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1123            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1124            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1125
1126        if escape:
1127            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1128        else:
1129            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1130
1131        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1132        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1133
1134    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1135        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1136        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1137
1138    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1140        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1141        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1142        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1143
1144    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1145        type_value = expression.this
1146
1147        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1148            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1149        else:
1150            type_sql = (
1151                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1152                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1153                else type_value
1154            )
1155
1156        nested = ""
1157        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1158        values = ""
1159
1160        if interior:
1161            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1162                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1163                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1164                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1165                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1166                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1167            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1168                nested = f" {interior}"
1169            else:
1170                nested = f"({interior})"
1171
1172        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1173        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1174            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1175            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1176        ):
1177            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1178
1179        return type_sql
1180
1181    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1182        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1183        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1184        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1185        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1186
1187    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1189        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1190        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1191        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1192        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1193        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1194        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1195        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1196        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1197        if self.RETURNING_END:
1198            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1199        else:
1200            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1201        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1202
1203    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1206        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1207        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1208        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1209        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1210        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1211        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1212        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1213        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1214        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1215
1216    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1217        return self.set_operations(expression)
1218
1219    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1220        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1221
1222    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1223        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1224        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1225        count = expression.args.get("count")
1226        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1227        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1228            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1229        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1230        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1231
1232    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1233        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1234            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1235            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1236            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1237
1238        agg = expression.this
1239        agg_arg = agg.this
1240        cond = expression.expression.this
1241        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1242        return self.sql(agg)
1243
1244    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1245        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1246            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1247            return ""
1248
1249        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1250
1251    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1252        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1253        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1254        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1255        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1256        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1257        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1258        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1259        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1260        if include:
1261            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1262        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1263        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1264        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1265        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1266
1267        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1268
1269    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1270        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1271        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1272        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1273        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1275        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1276        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1277
1278        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1279
1280        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1281        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1282
1283    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1284        text = expression.name
1285        lower = text.lower()
1286        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1287        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1288        if (
1289            expression.quoted
1290            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1291            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1292            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1293        ):
1294            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1295        return text
1296
1297    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1298        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1299        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1300        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1301        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1302        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1303
1304    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1305        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1306        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1307
1308    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1309        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1310
1311    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1312        root_properties = []
1313        with_properties = []
1314
1315        for p in expression.expressions:
1316            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1317            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1318                with_properties.append(p)
1319            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1320                root_properties.append(p)
1321
1322        return self.root_properties(
1323            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1324        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1325
1326    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1327        if properties.expressions:
1328            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1329        return ""
1330
1331    def properties(
1332        self,
1333        properties: exp.Properties,
1334        prefix: str = "",
1335        sep: str = ", ",
1336        suffix: str = "",
1337        wrapped: bool = True,
1338    ) -> str:
1339        if properties.expressions:
1340            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1341            if expressions:
1342                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1343                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1344        return ""
1345
1346    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1347        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1348
1349    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1350        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1351        for p in properties.expressions:
1352            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1353            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1354                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1355            else:
1356                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1357
1358        return properties_locs
1359
1360    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1361        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1362            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1363        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1364
1365    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1366        property_cls = expression.__class__
1367        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1368            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1369
1370        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1371        if not property_name:
1372            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1373
1374        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1375
1376    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1377        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1378            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1379            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1380
1381            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1382            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1383                like = f"({like})"
1384
1385            return like
1386
1387        if expression.expressions:
1388            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1389
1390        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1391        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1392
1393    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1394        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1395        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1396        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1397
1398    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1399        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1400        local = expression.args.get("local")
1401        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1402        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1403        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1404        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1405        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1406
1407    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1408        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1409        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1410        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1411
1412    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1413        if expression.args.get("default"):
1414            property = "DEFAULT"
1415        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1416            property = "ON"
1417        else:
1418            property = "OFF"
1419        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1420
1421    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1422        if expression.args.get("no"):
1423            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1424        if expression.args.get("default"):
1425            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1426
1427        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1428        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1429
1430    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1431        default = expression.args.get("default")
1432        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1433        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1434        if default or minimum or maximum:
1435            if default:
1436                prop = "DEFAULT"
1437            elif minimum:
1438                prop = "MINIMUM"
1439            else:
1440                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1441            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1442        units = expression.args.get("units")
1443        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1444        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1445
1446    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1447        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1448        always = expression.args.get("always")
1449        default = expression.args.get("default")
1450        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1451        never = expression.args.get("never")
1452
1453        if autotemp is not None:
1454            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1455        elif always:
1456            prop = "ALWAYS"
1457        elif default:
1458            prop = "DEFAULT"
1459        elif manual:
1460            prop = "MANUAL"
1461        elif never:
1462            prop = "NEVER"
1463        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1464
1465    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1466        no = expression.args.get("no")
1467        no = " NO" if no else ""
1468        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1469        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1470        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1471        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1472        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1473
1474    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1475        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1476            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1477        if expression.this:
1478            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1479            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1480            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1481
1482        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1483        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1484        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1485
1486    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1488
1489        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1490        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1491            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1492        else:
1493            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1494
1495        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1496
1497    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1498        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1499        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1500        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1501        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1502        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1503        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1504        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1505
1506    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1507        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1508        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1509        statistics_sql = ""
1510        if statistics is not None:
1511            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1512        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1513
1514    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1515        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1516
1517        if expression.this:
1518            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1519            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1520
1521            if expression.expression:
1522                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1523                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1524
1525            sql = f"{sql})"
1526
1527        return f"{sql})"
1528
1529    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1530        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1531        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1532
1533        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1534            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1535        else:
1536            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1537
1538        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1539        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1540        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1541        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1542        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1543        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1544        if is_function:
1545            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1546        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1547
1548        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1549        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1550        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1551        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1552        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1553        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1554        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1555        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1556
1557        if self.RETURNING_END:
1558            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1559        else:
1560            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1561
1562        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1563        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1564
1565    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1566        return self.set_operations(expression)
1567
1568    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1569        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1570
1571    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1572        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1573
1574    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1575        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1576        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1579        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1580
1581    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1582        return expression.name
1583
1584    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1585        return expression.name
1586
1587    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1588        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1589
1590        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1591        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1592
1593        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1594        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1595        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1596
1597        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1598        if expressions:
1599            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1600            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1601
1602        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1603
1604    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1605        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1606
1607    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1608        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1609        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1610        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1611        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1612        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1613        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1614        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1615        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1616        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1617        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1618        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1619        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1620        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1621
1622    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1623        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1624
1625    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1626        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1627        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1628        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1629        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1630
1631    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1633        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1634        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1635        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1636
1637    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1638        return ".".join(
1639            self.sql(part)
1640            for part in (
1641                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1642                expression.args.get("db"),
1643                expression.args.get("this"),
1644            )
1645            if part is not None
1646        )
1647
1648    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1649        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1650        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1651        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1652        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1653        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1654        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1655        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1656        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1657        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1658        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1659        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1660        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1661        joins = self.indent(
1662            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1663        )
1664        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1665
1666        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1667        if file_format:
1668            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1669            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1670            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1671
1672        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1673        if ordinality:
1674            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1675            alias = ""
1676
1677        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1678        if when:
1679            table = f"{table} {when}"
1680
1681        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1682
1683    def tablesample_sql(
1684        self,
1685        expression: exp.TableSample,
1686        sep: str = " AS ",
1687        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1688    ) -> str:
1689        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1690            table = expression.this.copy()
1691            table.set("alias", None)
1692            this = self.sql(table)
1693            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1694        else:
1695            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696            alias = ""
1697
1698        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1699        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1700        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1701        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1702        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1703        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1704        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1705        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1706        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1707
1708        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1709        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1710            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1711
1712        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1713        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1714            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1715
1716        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1717        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1718            expr = f"({expr})"
1719
1720        return (
1721            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1722        )
1723
1724    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1725        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1726
1727        if expression.this:
1728            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1729            if not expressions:
1730                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1731
1732            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1733            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1734            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1735            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1736            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1737
1738        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1739        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1740        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1741        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1742        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1743        if include_nulls is not None:
1744            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1745        else:
1746            nulls = ""
1747        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1748
1749    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1750        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1751        kind = expression.text("kind")
1752        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1753        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1754
1755    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1756        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1757
1758    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1760        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1761        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1762        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1763        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1764        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1765        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1766        if self.RETURNING_END:
1767            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1768        else:
1769            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1770        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1771        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1772
1773    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1774        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1775
1776        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1777        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1778            args = self.expressions(expression)
1779            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1780            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1781            values = (
1782                f"({values})"
1783                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1784                else values
1785            )
1786            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1787
1788        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1789        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1790        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1791
1792        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1793
1794        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1795            row = tup.expressions
1796
1797            if i == 0 and column_names:
1798                row = [
1799                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1800                ]
1801
1802            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1803
1804        if self.pretty:
1805            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1806            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1807            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1808            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1809            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1810
1811        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1812        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1813        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1814
1815    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1816        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1817
1818    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1819        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1820        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1821        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1822
1823    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1824        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1825
1826    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1827        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1828        if group_by_all is True:
1829            modifier = " ALL"
1830        elif group_by_all is False:
1831            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1832        else:
1833            modifier = ""
1834
1835        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1836
1837        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1838        grouping_sets = (
1839            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1840        )
1841
1842        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1843        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1844            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1845        else:
1846            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1847            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1848
1849        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1850        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1851            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1852        else:
1853            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1854            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1855
1856        groupings = csv(
1857            grouping_sets,
1858            cube_sql,
1859            rollup_sql,
1860            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1861            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1862        )
1863
1864        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1865            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1866
1867        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1868
1869    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1870        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1871        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1872
1873    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1874        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1875        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1876        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1877        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1878        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1879        return start + connect
1880
1881    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1882        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1883
1884    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1885        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1886            side = None
1887        else:
1888            side = expression.side
1889
1890        op_sql = " ".join(
1891            op
1892            for op in (
1893                expression.method,
1894                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1895                side,
1896                expression.kind,
1897                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1898            )
1899            if op
1900        )
1901        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1902        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1903        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1904        using = expression.args.get("using")
1905
1906        if not on_sql and using:
1907            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1908
1909        this = expression.this
1910        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1911
1912        if on_sql:
1913            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1914            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1915            if using:
1916                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1917            else:
1918                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1919        elif not op_sql:
1920            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1921                return f" {this_sql}"
1922
1923            return f", {this_sql}"
1924
1925        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1926        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1927
1928    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1929        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1930        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1931        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1932
1933    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1934        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1935
1936        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1937        if cross_apply is True:
1938            op = "INNER JOIN "
1939        elif cross_apply is False:
1940            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1941        else:
1942            op = ""
1943
1944        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1945
1946    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948
1949        if expression.args.get("view"):
1950            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1951            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1952            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1953            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1954            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1955            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1956
1957        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1958        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1959        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1960
1961    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1963
1964        args = [
1965            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1966            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1967            if e
1968        ]
1969
1970        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1971        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1973        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1974
1975        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1976
1977    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1979        value = expression.expression
1980        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1981        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1982        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1983        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1984
1985    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1986        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1987        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1990        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1991        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1992        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1993        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1994
1995    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1996        expressions = (
1997            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1998        )
1999        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2000        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2001
2002    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2003        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2004
2005    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2006        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2007            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2008            return ""
2009
2010        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2011        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2012        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2013        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2014
2015        if wait is not None:
2016            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2017                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2018            else:
2019                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2020
2021        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2022
2023    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2024        text = expression.this or ""
2025        if expression.is_string:
2026            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2027        return text
2028
2029    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2030        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2031            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2032            text = "".join(
2033                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2034            )
2035
2036        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2037            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2038        )
2039
2040    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2041        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2042        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2043        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2044        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2045        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2046        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2047        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2048        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2049        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2050        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2051        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2052
2053    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2054        return "NULL"
2055
2056    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2057        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2058
2059    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2062        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2063        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2064        interpolated_values = [
2065            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2066            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2067        ]
2068        interpolate = (
2069            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2070        )
2071        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2072
2073    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2074        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2075        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2076        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2077        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2078        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2079        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2080        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2081
2082    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2083        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2084
2085    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2086        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2087
2088    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2089        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2090
2091    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2092        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2093        asc = not desc
2094
2095        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2096        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2097        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2098        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2099        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2100
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102
2103        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2104        nulls_sort_change = ""
2105        if nulls_first and (
2106            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2107        ):
2108            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2109        elif (
2110            nulls_last
2111            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2112            and not nulls_are_last
2113        ):
2114            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2115
2116        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2117        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2118            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2119            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2120                self.unsupported(
2121                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2122                )
2123                nulls_sort_change = ""
2124            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2125                if expression.this.is_int:
2126                    self.unsupported(
2127                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2128                    )
2129                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2130                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2131                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2132                nulls_sort_change = ""
2133
2134        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2135        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2136
2137        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2138
2139    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2140        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2141        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2142
2143        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2144
2145        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2146
2147    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2148        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2149        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2150        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2151        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2152        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2153        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2154        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2155        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2156        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2157        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2158        definition_sqls = [
2159            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2160            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2161        ]
2162        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2163        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2164        body = "".join(
2165            (
2166                partition,
2167                order,
2168                measures,
2169                rows,
2170                after,
2171                pattern,
2172                define,
2173            )
2174        )
2175        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2176        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2177        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2178
2179    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2180        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2181
2182        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2183            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2184        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2185            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2186
2187        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2188        if options:
2189            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2190
2191        return csv(
2192            *sqls,
2193            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2194            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2195            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2196            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2197            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2198            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2199            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2200            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2201            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2202            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2203            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2204            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2205            options,
2206            sep="",
2207        )
2208
2209    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2210        return ""
2211
2212    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2213        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2214    ) -> t.List[str]:
2215        return [
2216            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2217            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2218        ]
2219
2220    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2221        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2222        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2223        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2224
2225    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2226        into = expression.args.get("into")
2227        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2228            into.pop()
2229
2230        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2231        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2232        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2233        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2234
2235        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2236        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2237            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2238            limit.pop()
2239        else:
2240            top = ""
2241
2242        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2243
2244        if kind:
2245            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2246                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2247            else:
2248                if kind == "STRUCT":
2249                    expressions = self.expressions(
2250                        sqls=[
2251                            self.sql(
2252                                exp.Struct(
2253                                    expressions=[
2254                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2255                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2256                                        else e
2257                                        for e in expression.expressions
2258                                    ]
2259                                )
2260                            )
2261                        ]
2262                    )
2263                kind = ""
2264
2265        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2266        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2267        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2268        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2269        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2270            expression,
2271            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2272            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2273            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2274        )
2275
2276        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2277
2278        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2279            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2280                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2281            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2282                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2283            else:
2284                table_kind = ""
2285            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2286
2287        return sql
2288
2289    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2291        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2292        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2293
2294    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2295        if expression.expressions:
2296            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2297        return ""
2298
2299    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2300        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2301        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2302        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2303        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2304        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2305
2306    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2308        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2309
2310    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2312        kind = expression.text("kind")
2313        if kind:
2314            kind = f"{kind}."
2315        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2316
2317    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2318        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2319
2320    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2321        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2322        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2323
2324        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2325        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2326
2327        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2328        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2329
2330    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2331        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2332        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2333
2334    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2335        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2336            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2337            order = expression.args.get("order")
2338
2339            if limit or order:
2340                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2341
2342                if limit:
2343                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2344                if order:
2345                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2346                return self.sql(select)
2347
2348        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2349        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2350
2351        while stack:
2352            node = stack.pop()
2353
2354            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2355                stack.append(node.expression)
2356                stack.append(
2357                    self.maybe_comment(
2358                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2359                        comments=node.comments,
2360                        separated=True,
2361                    )
2362                )
2363                stack.append(node.this)
2364            else:
2365                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2366
2367        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2368        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2369        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2370
2371    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2372        return self.set_operations(expression)
2373
2374    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2375        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2376        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2377        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2378        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2379
2380    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2381        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2382
2383        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2384        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2385
2386        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2387            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2388                alias.append("columns", offset)
2389
2390        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2391            columns = alias.columns
2392            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2393        else:
2394            alias = self.sql(alias)
2395
2396        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2397        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2398            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2399        else:
2400            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2401                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2402            elif offset:
2403                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2404            else:
2405                suffix = alias
2406
2407        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2408
2409    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2410        return ""
2411
2412    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2413        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2414        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2415
2416    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2417        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2418        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2419        order = expression.args.get("order")
2420        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2421        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2422        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2423        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2424
2425        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2426
2427        first = expression.args.get("first")
2428        if first is None:
2429            first = ""
2430        else:
2431            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2432
2433        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2434            return f"{this} {alias}"
2435
2436        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2437        return f"{this} ({args})"
2438
2439    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2440        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2441        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2442
2443    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2444        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2445        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2446        end = (
2447            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2448            or "CURRENT ROW"
2449        )
2450        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2451
2452    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2453        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2454        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2455        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2456
2457    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2459        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2460        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2461        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2462
2463    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2464        return apply_index_offset(
2465            expression.this,
2466            expression.expressions,
2467            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2468        )
2469
2470    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2471        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2472        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2474
2475    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2476        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2477
2478    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2480        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2481            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2482                this = self.wrap(this)
2483            return f"ANY{this}"
2484        return f"ANY {this}"
2485
2486    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2487        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2488
2489    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2490        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2491        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2492
2493        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2494            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2495            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2496
2497        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2498
2499        if default:
2500            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2501
2502        statements.append("END")
2503
2504        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2505            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2506
2507        return " ".join(statements)
2508
2509    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2512        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2513
2514    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2515        order = expression.args.get("order")
2516        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2517        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2518
2519    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2520        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2521        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2522        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2523
2524    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2525        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2526
2527        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2528            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2529        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2530            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2531        else:
2532            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2533
2534    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2535        args = expression.expressions
2536        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2537            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2538
2539        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2540            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2541
2542        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2543            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2544
2545        return args
2546
2547    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2548        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2549
2550        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2551        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2552            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2553
2554        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2555
2556    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2557        return self.func(
2558            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2559        )
2560
2561    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2562        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2563        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2564
2565    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2566        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2567        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2568        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2569        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2570        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2571        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2572        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2573        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2574
2575    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2576        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2577        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2578        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2579        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2580
2581    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2582        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2583
2584    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2585        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2586        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2587        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2588
2589    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2590        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2591
2592    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2593        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2594        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2595
2596    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2597        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2598            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2599            if not callable(transform):
2600                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2601                return ""
2602
2603            return transform(self, expression)
2604
2605        if isinstance(expression, int):
2606            return str(expression)
2607
2608        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2609            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2610            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2611        else:
2612            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2613            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2614
2615        return escaped
2616
2617    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2618        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2619
2620    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2621        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2622        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2623
2624        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2625        if unique_keys is not None:
2626            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2627        else:
2628            unique_keys = ""
2629
2630        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2631        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2632        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2633        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2634
2635        return self.func(
2636            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2637            *expression.expressions,
2638            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2639        )
2640
2641    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2642        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2643
2644    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2645        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2646        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2647        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2648        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2649        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2650        return self.func(
2651            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2652        )
2653
2654    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2656        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2657        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2658        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2659        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2660        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2661        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2662        return self.func(
2663            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2664            this,
2665            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2666        )
2667
2668    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2669        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2670        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2671        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2672
2673        if nested_schema:
2674            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2675
2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2677        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2678        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2679        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2680
2681    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2682        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2683
2684    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2686        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2687        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2688        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2689        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2690        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2691        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2692        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2693        return self.func(
2694            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2695        )
2696
2697    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2699        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2700        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2701        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2702        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2703        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2704
2705    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2707        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2708        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2709        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2710        with_ = (
2711            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2712            if expressions
2713            else ""
2714        )
2715        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2716
2717    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2718        query = expression.args.get("query")
2719        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2720        field = expression.args.get("field")
2721        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2722
2723        if query:
2724            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2725        elif unnest:
2726            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2727        elif field:
2728            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2729        else:
2730            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2731
2732        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2733
2734    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2735        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2736
2737    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2738        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2739        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2740            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2741        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2742
2743        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2744            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2745            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2746
2747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2748        if this:
2749            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2750            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2751
2752        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2753
2754    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2755        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2756
2757    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2759        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2760        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2761        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2762        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2763        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2764
2765    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2766        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2767
2768    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2769        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2770        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2771
2772    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2773        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2774        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2776        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2777
2778    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2779        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2780
2781    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2782        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2783        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2784        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2785
2786    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2787        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2788        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2789
2790        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2791            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2792        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2793            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2794
2795        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2796
2797    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2798        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2799
2800    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2802        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2803        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2804
2805    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2807        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2808        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2809
2810    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2813        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2814
2815    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2816        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2817
2818    def and_sql(
2819        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2820    ) -> str:
2821        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2822
2823    def or_sql(
2824        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2825    ) -> str:
2826        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2827
2828    def xor_sql(
2829        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2830    ) -> str:
2831        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2832
2833    def connector_sql(
2834        self,
2835        expression: exp.Connector,
2836        op: str,
2837        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2838    ) -> str:
2839        if stack is not None:
2840            if expression.expressions:
2841                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2842            else:
2843                stack.append(expression.right)
2844                if expression.comments:
2845                    for comment in expression.comments:
2846                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2847                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2848            return op
2849
2850        stack = [expression]
2851        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2852        ops = set()
2853
2854        while stack:
2855            node = stack.pop()
2856            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2857                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2858            else:
2859                sql = self.sql(node)
2860                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2861                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2862                else:
2863                    sqls.append(sql)
2864
2865        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2866        return sep.join(sqls)
2867
2868    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2869        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2870
2871    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2872        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2873
2874    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2875        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2876
2877    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2878        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2879
2880    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2881        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2882
2883    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2884        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2885
2886    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2887        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2888        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2889        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2890        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2891        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2892        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2893        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2894
2895    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2896        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2897        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2898
2899    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2900        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2901
2902    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2903        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2904            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2905        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2906
2907    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2908        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2909
2910    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2912        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2913        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2914        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2915        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2916        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2917
2918    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2920        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2921        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2922        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2923        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2924        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2925        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2926        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2927        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2928
2929    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2930        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2931        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2932        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2933        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2934
2935        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2936            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2937
2938        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2939
2940    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2941        return "BEGIN"
2942
2943    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2944        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2945        if chain is not None:
2946            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2947
2948        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2949
2950    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2951        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2952        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2953        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2954
2955    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2956        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2957
2958        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2959        if dtype:
2960            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2961            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2962            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2963            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2964            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2965
2966        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2967        if default:
2968            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2969
2970        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2971        if comment:
2972            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2973
2974        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2975            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2976
2977        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2978
2979    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2980        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2981            # Remove db from tables
2982            expression = expression.transform(
2983                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2984            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2986        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2987
2988    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2989        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2990        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2992        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2993
2994    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2995        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2996
2997        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2998            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2999        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3000            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3001        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3002            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3003        else:
3004            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3005
3006        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3007        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3008        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3009        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3010        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
3011
3012    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3013        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3014            return self.expressions(
3015                expression,
3016                key="actions",
3017                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3018            )
3019        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3020
3021    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3022        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3023        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3024        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3025
3026    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3027        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3028
3029    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3030        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3031
3032        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3033            case = exp.case()
3034            for arg in expression.expressions:
3035                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3036            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3037
3038        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3039
3040        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3041        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3042        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3043
3044    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3045        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3046
3047    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3048        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3049
3050    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3051        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3052        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3053        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3054        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3055
3056    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3057        return self.sql(
3058            exp.Cast(
3059                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3060                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3061            )
3062        )
3063
3064    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3065        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3066            return self.func(
3067                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3068            )
3069        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3070
3071    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3072        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3073
3074        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3075            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3076
3077        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3078            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3079                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3080
3081        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3082            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3083                return self.sql(
3084                    exp.cast(
3085                        l / r,
3086                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3087                    )
3088                )
3089
3090        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3091
3092    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3094
3095    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3097
3098    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3099        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3100
3101    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3103
3104    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3106
3107    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3109
3110    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3112
3113    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3114        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3115
3116    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3117        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3118
3119    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3121
3122    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3124
3125    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3126        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3127            return self.sql(
3128                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3129            )
3130        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3131
3132    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3133        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3134
3135    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3136        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3137
3138    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3139        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3140
3141    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3142        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3143
3144    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3145        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3146
3147    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3148        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3149
3150    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3151        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3152
3153    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3154        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3155
3156    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3157        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3158
3159    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3160        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3161
3162    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3163        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3164
3165    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3166        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3167
3168    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3169        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3170
3171    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3172        this = expression.this
3173        expr = expression.expression
3174
3175        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3176            this, expr = expr, this
3177        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3178            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3179                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3180
3181            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3182
3183        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3184
3185    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3186        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3187        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3189        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3190        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3191
3192    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3193        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3194        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3195
3196    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3197        args = []
3198
3199        for key in expression.arg_types:
3200            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3201
3202            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3203                for value in arg_value:
3204                    args.append(value)
3205            elif arg_value is not None:
3206                args.append(arg_value)
3207
3208        if self.normalize_functions:
3209            name = expression.sql_name()
3210        else:
3211            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3212
3213        return self.func(name, *args)
3214
3215    def func(
3216        self,
3217        name: str,
3218        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3219        prefix: str = "(",
3220        suffix: str = ")",
3221    ) -> str:
3222        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3223
3224    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3225        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3226        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3227            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3228        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3229
3230    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3231        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3232
3233    def format_time(
3234        self,
3235        expression: exp.Expression,
3236        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3237        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3238    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3239        return format_time(
3240            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3241            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3242            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3243        )
3244
3245    def expressions(
3246        self,
3247        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3248        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3249        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3250        flat: bool = False,
3251        indent: bool = True,
3252        skip_first: bool = False,
3253        skip_last: bool = False,
3254        sep: str = ", ",
3255        prefix: str = "",
3256        dynamic: bool = False,
3257        new_line: bool = False,
3258    ) -> str:
3259        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3260
3261        if not expressions:
3262            return ""
3263
3264        if flat:
3265            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3266
3267        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3268
3269        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3270        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3271            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3272
3273        result_sqls = []
3274        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3275            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3276            if not sql:
3277                continue
3278
3279            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3280
3281            if self.pretty:
3282                if self.leading_comma:
3283                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3284                else:
3285                    result_sqls.append(
3286                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3287                    )
3288            else:
3289                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3290
3291        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3292            if new_line:
3293                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3294                result_sqls.append("")
3295            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3296        else:
3297            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3298        return (
3299            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3300            if indent
3301            else result_sql
3302        )
3303
3304    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3305        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3306        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3307        if flat:
3308            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3309        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3310
3311    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3312        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3313        if not property_name:
3314            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3315        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3316
3317    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3318        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3319
3320    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3321        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3322
3323    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3325        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3326        expressions = (
3327            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3328        )
3329        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3330
3331    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3333        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3334        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3335
3336    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3337        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3338
3339    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3340        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3341        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3342        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3343        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3344
3345        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3346        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3347            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3348            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3349                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3350        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3351            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3352                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3353            else:
3354                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3355        else:
3356            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3357        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3358
3359    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3360        table = expression.this
3361        table_alias = ""
3362
3363        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3364        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3365            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3366            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3367
3368        this = self.sql(table)
3369        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3370        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3371        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3372
3373        return self.prepend_ctes(
3374            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3375        )
3376
3377    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3378        if expression.args.get("format"):
3379            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3380
3381        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3382
3383    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3384        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3385            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3386            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3387
3388        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3389        if not fmt:
3390            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3391            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3392
3393        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3394
3395    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3397        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3398        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3399        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3400        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3401
3402    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3404        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3405        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3406        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3407
3408    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3409        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3410
3411    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3412        return ""
3413
3414    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3415        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3416        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3417        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3418        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3419        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3420
3421    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3423        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3424
3425        if having:
3426            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3427
3428        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3429
3430    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3431        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3432        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3433        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3434        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3435        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3436        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3437        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3438        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3439        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3440        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3441        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3442        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3443        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3444
3445    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3446        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3447        if key_block_size:
3448            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3449
3450        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3451        if using:
3452            return f"USING {using}"
3453
3454        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3455        if parser:
3456            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3457
3458        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3459        if comment:
3460            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3461
3462        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3463        if visible is not None:
3464            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3465
3466        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3467        if engine_attr:
3468            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3469
3470        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3471        if secondary_engine_attr:
3472            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3473
3474        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3475        return ""
3476
3477    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3478        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3479        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3480
3481    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3482        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3483        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3485        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3486        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3487        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3488        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3489        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3490        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3491        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3492        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3493
3494    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3495        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3496            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3497
3498        case = exp.Case().when(
3499            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3500            expression.args["true"],
3501            copy=False,
3502        )
3503        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3504        if else_cond:
3505            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3506
3507        return self.sql(case)
3508
3509    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3511        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3512        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3513        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3514        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3515        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3516
3517    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3518        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3519
3520    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3521        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3522
3523    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3524        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3525        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3526        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3527        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3528        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3529        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3530
3531    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3533        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3534        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3535
3536    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3538        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3539        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3540
3541    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3542        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3543
3544    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3545        arg = expression.this
3546        if not arg.type:
3547            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3548
3549            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3550
3551        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3552            return self.sql(arg)
3553
3554        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3555        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3556
3557    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3558        this = expression.this
3559        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3560            return self.sql(this)
3561
3562        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3563
3564    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3565        this = expression.this
3566        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3567            return self.sql(this)
3568
3569        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3570
3571    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3572        this = expression.this
3573        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3574
3575        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3576            return self.sql(
3577                exp.cast(
3578                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3579                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3580                )
3581            )
3582
3583        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3584            return self.sql(this)
3585
3586        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3587
3588    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3589        return self.sql(
3590            exp.func(
3591                "DATEDIFF",
3592                expression.this,
3593                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3594                "day",
3595            )
3596        )
3597
3598    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3599        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3600            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3601
3602        unit = expression.text("unit")
3603        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3604            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3605
3606        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3607
3608    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3609        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3610
3611        return self.func(
3612            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3613        )
3614
3615    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3616        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3617            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3618            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3619            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3620            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3621
3622        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3623
3624        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3625        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3626            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3627
3628        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3629
3630    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3631        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3632        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3633
3634    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3635        expression.set(
3636            "expressions",
3637            [
3638                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3639                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3640                else e
3641                for e in expression.expressions
3642            ],
3643        )
3644
3645        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3646
3647    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3648        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3649        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3650
3651        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3652
3653    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3654        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3655        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3656
3657        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3658
3659        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3660        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3661
3662        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3663        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3664
3665        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3666        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3667
3668        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3669        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3670
3671        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3672
3673    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3674    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3675    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3676        to = expression.this
3677        value = expression.expression
3678        style = expression.args.get("style")
3679        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3680        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3681
3682        if not to or not value:
3683            return ""
3684
3685        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3686        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3687            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3688
3689        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3690        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3691
3692        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3693        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3694            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3695
3696            style_value = style.name
3697            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3698            if not converted_style:
3699                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3700
3701            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3702
3703            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3704                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3705            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3706                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3707            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3708                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3709            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3710                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3711
3712        if not transformed:
3713            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3714
3715        return self.sql(transformed)
3716
3717    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3718        this = expression.this
3719        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3720            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3721            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3722
3723        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3724            return f".{this}"
3725
3726        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3727        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3728
3729    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3730        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3731        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3732
3733    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3734        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3735            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3736
3737            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3738
3739        return expression
3740
3741    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3742        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3743            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3744            mods = sorted(
3745                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3746                key=lambda x: 0
3747                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3748                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3749            )
3750
3751            if mods:
3752                mod = mods[0]
3753                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3754                this.meta["inline"] = True
3755                mod.this.replace(this)
3756                return self.sql(expression.this)
3757
3758            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3759
3760            if agg_func:
3761                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3762
3763        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3764
3765    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3766        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3767        if self.pretty:
3768            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3769        return string
3770
3771    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3772        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3773        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3774
3775        if not value:
3776            return option
3777
3778        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3779
3780        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3781
3782    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3783        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3784        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3785            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3786            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3787            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}"
3788        else:
3789            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3790            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3791            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3792
3793        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3794        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3795
3796        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3797        encryption = f"ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3798
3799        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3800        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3801
3802        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3803        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3804
3805        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3806
3807    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3809        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3810
3811        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3812        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3813
3814        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3815        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3816
3817        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3818        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3819        if params:
3820            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3821
3822        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
542    def __init__(
543        self,
544        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
545        identify: str | bool = False,
546        normalize: bool = False,
547        pad: int = 2,
548        indent: int = 2,
549        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
550        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
551        max_unsupported: int = 3,
552        leading_comma: bool = False,
553        max_text_width: int = 80,
554        comments: bool = True,
555        dialect: DialectType = None,
556    ):
557        import sqlglot
558        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
559
560        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
561        self.identify = identify
562        self.normalize = normalize
563        self.pad = pad
564        self._indent = indent
565        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
566        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
567        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
568        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
569        self.comments = comments
570        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
571
572        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
573        self.normalize_functions = (
574            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
575        )
576
577        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
578        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
579            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
580        )
581        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
582            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
583        )
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
585    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
586        """
587        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
588
589        Args:
590            expression: The syntax tree.
591            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
592                it is safer to copy.
593
594        Returns:
595            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
596        """
597        if copy:
598            expression = expression.copy()
599
600        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
601
602        self.unsupported_messages = []
603        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
604
605        if self.pretty:
606            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
607
608        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
609            return sql
610
611        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
612            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
613                logger.warning(msg)
614        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
615            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
616
617        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
619    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
620        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
621        if (
622            not expression.parent
623            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
624            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
625        ):
626            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
627
628            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
629
630        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
631            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
632
633            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
634
635        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
637    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
638        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
639            raise UnsupportedError(message)
640        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
642    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
643        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
645    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
646        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
648    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
649        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
650        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
651        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
653    def maybe_comment(
654        self,
655        sql: str,
656        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
657        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
658        separated: bool = False,
659    ) -> str:
660        comments = (
661            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
662            if self.comments
663            else None
664        )
665
666        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
667            return sql
668
669        comments_sql = " ".join(
670            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
671        )
672
673        if not comments_sql:
674            return sql
675
676        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
677
678        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
679            return (
680                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
681                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
682                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
683            )
684
685        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
687    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
688        this_sql = self.indent(
689            (
690                self.sql(expression)
691                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
692                else self.sql(expression, "this")
693            ),
694            level=1,
695            pad=0,
696        )
697        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
699    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
700        original = self.identify
701        self.identify = False
702        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
703        self.identify = original
704        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
706    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
707        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
708            return name.upper()
709        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
710            return name.lower()
711        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
713    def indent(
714        self,
715        sql: str,
716        level: int = 0,
717        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
718        skip_first: bool = False,
719        skip_last: bool = False,
720    ) -> str:
721        if not self.pretty:
722            return sql
723
724        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
725        lines = sql.split("\n")
726
727        return "\n".join(
728            (
729                line
730                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
731                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
732            )
733            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
734        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
736    def sql(
737        self,
738        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
739        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
740        comment: bool = True,
741    ) -> str:
742        if not expression:
743            return ""
744
745        if isinstance(expression, str):
746            return expression
747
748        if key:
749            value = expression.args.get(key)
750            if value:
751                return self.sql(value)
752            return ""
753
754        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
755
756        if callable(transform):
757            sql = transform(self, expression)
758        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
759            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
760
761            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
762                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
763            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
764                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
765            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
766                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
767            else:
768                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
769        else:
770            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
771
772        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
774    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
775        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
776        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
777        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
779    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
780        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
781        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
782        options = expression.args.get("options")
783        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
784        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
785        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
786        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
787        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
789    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
790        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
791            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
792        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
793        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
795    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
796        return ".".join(
797            self.sql(part)
798            for part in (
799                expression.args.get("catalog"),
800                expression.args.get("db"),
801                expression.args.get("table"),
802                expression.args.get("this"),
803            )
804            if part
805        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
807    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
808        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
809
810        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
811            join_mark = ""
812            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
813
814        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
816    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
818        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
819        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
820        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
822    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
823        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
824        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
825        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
826        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
827        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
828        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
829        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
830        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
831
832        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
833            kind = ""
834
835        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
837    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
839        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
840        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
842    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
844        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
845            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
846        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
847            persisted = " PERSISTED"
848        else:
849            persisted = ""
850        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
852    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
853        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
855    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
856        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
857            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
858        else:
859            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
860
861        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
863    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
864        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
865    ) -> str:
866        this = ""
867        if expression.this is not None:
868            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
869            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
870
871        start = expression.args.get("start")
872        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
873        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
874        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
875        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
876        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
877        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
878        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
879        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
880        cycle_sql = ""
881
882        if cycle is not None:
883            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
884            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
885
886        sequence_opts = ""
887        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
888            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
889            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
890
891        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
892        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
893
894        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
896    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
897        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
898    ) -> str:
899        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
900        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
901        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
903    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
904        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
905    ) -> str:
906        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
908    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
909        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
911    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
912        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
914    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
915        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
916        if desc is not None:
917            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
918        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
920    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
922        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
923        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
924        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
925        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
926        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
927        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
929    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
930        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 932    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 933        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 934        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 935        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 936
 937        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 938
 939        properties_sql = ""
 940        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 941            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 942        ):
 943            properties_sql = self.sql(
 944                exp.Properties(
 945                    expressions=[
 946                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 947                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 948                    ]
 949                )
 950            )
 951
 952        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 953        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 954
 955        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 956        if expression_sql:
 957            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 958
 959            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 960                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 961                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 962                        exp.Properties(
 963                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 964                        ),
 965                        wrapped=False,
 966                    )
 967                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 968                else:
 969                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 970
 971        postindex_props_sql = ""
 972        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 973            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 974                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 975                wrapped=False,
 976                prefix=" ",
 977            )
 978
 979        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 980        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 981        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 982
 983        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 984        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 985
 986        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 987        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 988            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 989                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 990                sep=" ",
 991                prefix=" ",
 992                wrapped=False,
 993            )
 994
 995        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 996
 997        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 998        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 999            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1000                exp.Properties(
1001                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1002                ),
1003                sep=" ",
1004                prefix=" ",
1005                wrapped=False,
1006            )
1007
1008        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1009        no_schema_binding = (
1010            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1011        )
1012
1013        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1014        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1015
1016        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1017        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1019    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1020        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1021        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1022        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1023        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1024        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1025        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1026        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1027        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1028        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1029        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1030
1031        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1032        if cache is None:
1033            cache_str = ""
1034        elif cache is True:
1035            cache_str = " CACHE"
1036        else:
1037            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1038
1039        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1040        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1041
1042        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1044    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1046        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1047        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1048        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1050    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1051        style = expression.args.get("style")
1052        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1053        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1055    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1056        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1057        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1059    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1060        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1061        if with_:
1062            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1063        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1065    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1066        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1067        recursive = (
1068            "RECURSIVE "
1069            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1070            else ""
1071        )
1072
1073        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1075    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1076        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1077
1078        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1079        if materialized is False:
1080            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1081        elif materialized:
1082            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1083
1084        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1086    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1087        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1089        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1090
1091        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1092            columns = ""
1093            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1094
1095        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1096            alias = "_t"
1097
1098        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1100    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1102        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1103            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1104        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1106    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1108        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1109            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1110        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1112    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1115            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1116        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1118    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1121
1122        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1123            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1124            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1125
1126        if escape:
1127            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1128        else:
1129            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1130
1131        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1132        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1134    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1135        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1136        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1138    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1140        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1141        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1142        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1144    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1145        type_value = expression.this
1146
1147        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1148            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1149        else:
1150            type_sql = (
1151                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1152                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1153                else type_value
1154            )
1155
1156        nested = ""
1157        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1158        values = ""
1159
1160        if interior:
1161            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1162                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1163                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1164                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1165                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1166                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1167            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1168                nested = f" {interior}"
1169            else:
1170                nested = f"({interior})"
1171
1172        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1173        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1174            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1175            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1176        ):
1177            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1178
1179        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1181    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1182        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1183        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1184        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1185        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1187    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1189        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1190        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1191        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1192        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1193        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1194        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1195        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1196        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1197        if self.RETURNING_END:
1198            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1199        else:
1200            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1201        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1203    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1206        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1207        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1208        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1209        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1210        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1211        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1212        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1213        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1214        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1216    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1217        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1219    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1220        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1222    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1223        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1224        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1225        count = expression.args.get("count")
1226        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1227        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1228            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1229        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1230        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1232    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1233        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1234            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1235            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1236            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1237
1238        agg = expression.this
1239        agg_arg = agg.this
1240        cond = expression.expression.this
1241        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1242        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1244    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1245        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1246            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1247            return ""
1248
1249        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1251    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1252        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1253        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1254        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1255        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1256        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1257        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1258        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1259        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1260        if include:
1261            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1262        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1263        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1264        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1265        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1266
1267        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1269    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1270        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1271        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1272        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1273        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1275        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1276        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1277
1278        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1279
1280        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1281        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1283    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1284        text = expression.name
1285        lower = text.lower()
1286        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1287        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1288        if (
1289            expression.quoted
1290            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1291            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1292            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1293        ):
1294            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1295        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1297    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1298        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1299        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1300        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1301        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1302        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1304    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1305        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1306        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1308    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1309        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1311    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1312        root_properties = []
1313        with_properties = []
1314
1315        for p in expression.expressions:
1316            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1317            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1318                with_properties.append(p)
1319            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1320                root_properties.append(p)
1321
1322        return self.root_properties(
1323            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1324        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1326    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1327        if properties.expressions:
1328            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1329        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1331    def properties(
1332        self,
1333        properties: exp.Properties,
1334        prefix: str = "",
1335        sep: str = ", ",
1336        suffix: str = "",
1337        wrapped: bool = True,
1338    ) -> str:
1339        if properties.expressions:
1340            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1341            if expressions:
1342                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1343                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1344        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1346    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1347        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1349    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1350        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1351        for p in properties.expressions:
1352            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1353            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1354                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1355            else:
1356                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1357
1358        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1360    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1361        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1362            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1363        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1365    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1366        property_cls = expression.__class__
1367        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1368            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1369
1370        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1371        if not property_name:
1372            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1373
1374        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1376    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1377        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1378            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1379            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1380
1381            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1382            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1383                like = f"({like})"
1384
1385            return like
1386
1387        if expression.expressions:
1388            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1389
1390        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1391        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1393    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1394        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1395        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1396        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1398    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1399        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1400        local = expression.args.get("local")
1401        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1402        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1403        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1404        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1405        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1407    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1408        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1409        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1410        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1412    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1413        if expression.args.get("default"):
1414            property = "DEFAULT"
1415        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1416            property = "ON"
1417        else:
1418            property = "OFF"
1419        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1421    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1422        if expression.args.get("no"):
1423            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1424        if expression.args.get("default"):
1425            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1426
1427        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1428        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1430    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1431        default = expression.args.get("default")
1432        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1433        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1434        if default or minimum or maximum:
1435            if default:
1436                prop = "DEFAULT"
1437            elif minimum:
1438                prop = "MINIMUM"
1439            else:
1440                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1441            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1442        units = expression.args.get("units")
1443        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1444        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1446    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1447        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1448        always = expression.args.get("always")
1449        default = expression.args.get("default")
1450        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1451        never = expression.args.get("never")
1452
1453        if autotemp is not None:
1454            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1455        elif always:
1456            prop = "ALWAYS"
1457        elif default:
1458            prop = "DEFAULT"
1459        elif manual:
1460            prop = "MANUAL"
1461        elif never:
1462            prop = "NEVER"
1463        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1465    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1466        no = expression.args.get("no")
1467        no = " NO" if no else ""
1468        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1469        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1470        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1471        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1472        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1474    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1475        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1476            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1477        if expression.this:
1478            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1479            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1480            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1481
1482        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1483        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1484        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1486    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1488
1489        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1490        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1491            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1492        else:
1493            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1494
1495        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1497    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1498        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1499        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1500        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1501        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1502        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1503        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1504        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1506    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1507        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1508        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1509        statistics_sql = ""
1510        if statistics is not None:
1511            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1512        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1514    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1515        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1516
1517        if expression.this:
1518            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1519            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1520
1521            if expression.expression:
1522                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1523                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1524
1525            sql = f"{sql})"
1526
1527        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1529    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1530        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1531        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1532
1533        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1534            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1535        else:
1536            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1537
1538        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1539        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1540        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1541        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1542        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1543        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1544        if is_function:
1545            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1546        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1547
1548        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1549        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1550        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1551        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1552        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1553        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1554        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1555        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1556
1557        if self.RETURNING_END:
1558            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1559        else:
1560            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1561
1562        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1563        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1565    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1566        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1568    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1569        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1571    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1572        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1574    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1575        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1576        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1579        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1581    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1582        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1584    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1585        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1587    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1588        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1589
1590        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1591        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1592
1593        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1594        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1595        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1596
1597        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1598        if expressions:
1599            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1600            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1601
1602        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1604    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1605        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1607    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1608        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1609        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1610        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1611        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1612        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1613        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1614        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1615        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1616        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1617        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1618        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1619        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1620        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1622    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1623        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1625    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1626        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1627        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1628        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1629        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1631    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1633        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1634        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1635        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1637    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1638        return ".".join(
1639            self.sql(part)
1640            for part in (
1641                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1642                expression.args.get("db"),
1643                expression.args.get("this"),
1644            )
1645            if part is not None
1646        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1648    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1649        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1650        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1651        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1652        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1653        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1654        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1655        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1656        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1657        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1658        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1659        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1660        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1661        joins = self.indent(
1662            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1663        )
1664        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1665
1666        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1667        if file_format:
1668            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1669            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1670            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1671
1672        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1673        if ordinality:
1674            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1675            alias = ""
1676
1677        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1678        if when:
1679            table = f"{table} {when}"
1680
1681        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1683    def tablesample_sql(
1684        self,
1685        expression: exp.TableSample,
1686        sep: str = " AS ",
1687        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1688    ) -> str:
1689        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1690            table = expression.this.copy()
1691            table.set("alias", None)
1692            this = self.sql(table)
1693            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1694        else:
1695            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696            alias = ""
1697
1698        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1699        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1700        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1701        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1702        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1703        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1704        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1705        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1706        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1707
1708        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1709        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1710            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1711
1712        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1713        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1714            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1715
1716        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1717        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1718            expr = f"({expr})"
1719
1720        return (
1721            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1722        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1724    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1725        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1726
1727        if expression.this:
1728            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1729            if not expressions:
1730                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1731
1732            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1733            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1734            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1735            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1736            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1737
1738        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1739        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1740        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1741        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1742        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1743        if include_nulls is not None:
1744            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1745        else:
1746            nulls = ""
1747        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1749    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1750        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1751        kind = expression.text("kind")
1752        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1753        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1755    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1756        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1758    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1760        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1761        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1762        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1763        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1764        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1765        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1766        if self.RETURNING_END:
1767            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1768        else:
1769            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1770        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1771        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1773    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1774        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1775
1776        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1777        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1778            args = self.expressions(expression)
1779            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1780            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1781            values = (
1782                f"({values})"
1783                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1784                else values
1785            )
1786            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1787
1788        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1789        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1790        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1791
1792        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1793
1794        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1795            row = tup.expressions
1796
1797            if i == 0 and column_names:
1798                row = [
1799                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1800                ]
1801
1802            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1803
1804        if self.pretty:
1805            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1806            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1807            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1808            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1809            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1810
1811        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1812        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1813        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1815    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1816        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1818    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1819        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1820        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1821        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1823    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1824        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1826    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1827        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1828        if group_by_all is True:
1829            modifier = " ALL"
1830        elif group_by_all is False:
1831            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1832        else:
1833            modifier = ""
1834
1835        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1836
1837        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1838        grouping_sets = (
1839            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1840        )
1841
1842        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1843        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1844            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1845        else:
1846            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1847            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1848
1849        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1850        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1851            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1852        else:
1853            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1854            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1855
1856        groupings = csv(
1857            grouping_sets,
1858            cube_sql,
1859            rollup_sql,
1860            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1861            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1862        )
1863
1864        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1865            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1866
1867        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1869    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1870        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1871        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1873    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1874        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1875        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1876        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1877        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1878        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1879        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1881    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1882        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1884    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1885        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1886            side = None
1887        else:
1888            side = expression.side
1889
1890        op_sql = " ".join(
1891            op
1892            for op in (
1893                expression.method,
1894                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1895                side,
1896                expression.kind,
1897                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1898            )
1899            if op
1900        )
1901        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1902        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1903        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1904        using = expression.args.get("using")
1905
1906        if not on_sql and using:
1907            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1908
1909        this = expression.this
1910        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1911
1912        if on_sql:
1913            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1914            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1915            if using:
1916                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1917            else:
1918                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1919        elif not op_sql:
1920            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1921                return f" {this_sql}"
1922
1923            return f", {this_sql}"
1924
1925        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1926        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1928    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1929        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1930        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1931        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1933    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1934        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1935
1936        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1937        if cross_apply is True:
1938            op = "INNER JOIN "
1939        elif cross_apply is False:
1940            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1941        else:
1942            op = ""
1943
1944        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1946    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948
1949        if expression.args.get("view"):
1950            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1951            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1952            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1953            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1954            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1955            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1956
1957        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1958        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1959        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1961    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1963
1964        args = [
1965            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1966            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1967            if e
1968        ]
1969
1970        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1971        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1973        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1974
1975        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1977    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1979        value = expression.expression
1980        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1981        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1982        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1983        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1985    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1986        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1987        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1990        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1991        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1992        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1993        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1995    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1996        expressions = (
1997            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1998        )
1999        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2000        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2002    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2003        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2005    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2006        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2007            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2008            return ""
2009
2010        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2011        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2012        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2013        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2014
2015        if wait is not None:
2016            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2017                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2018            else:
2019                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2020
2021        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2023    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2024        text = expression.this or ""
2025        if expression.is_string:
2026            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2027        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2029    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2030        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2031            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2032            text = "".join(
2033                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2034            )
2035
2036        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2037            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2038        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2040    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2041        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2042        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2043        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2044        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2045        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2046        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2047        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2048        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2049        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2050        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2051        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2053    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2054        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2056    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2057        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2059    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2062        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2063        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2064        interpolated_values = [
2065            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2066            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2067        ]
2068        interpolate = (
2069            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2070        )
2071        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2073    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2074        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2075        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2076        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2077        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2078        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2079        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2080        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2082    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2083        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2085    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2086        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2088    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2089        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2091    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2092        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2093        asc = not desc
2094
2095        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2096        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2097        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2098        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2099        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2100
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102
2103        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2104        nulls_sort_change = ""
2105        if nulls_first and (
2106            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2107        ):
2108            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2109        elif (
2110            nulls_last
2111            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2112            and not nulls_are_last
2113        ):
2114            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2115
2116        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2117        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2118            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2119            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2120                self.unsupported(
2121                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2122                )
2123                nulls_sort_change = ""
2124            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2125                if expression.this.is_int:
2126                    self.unsupported(
2127                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2128                    )
2129                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2130                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2131                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2132                nulls_sort_change = ""
2133
2134        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2135        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2136
2137        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2139    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2140        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2141        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2142
2143        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2144
2145        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2147    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2148        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2149        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2150        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2151        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2152        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2153        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2154        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2155        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2156        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2157        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2158        definition_sqls = [
2159            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2160            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2161        ]
2162        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2163        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2164        body = "".join(
2165            (
2166                partition,
2167                order,
2168                measures,
2169                rows,
2170                after,
2171                pattern,
2172                define,
2173            )
2174        )
2175        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2176        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2177        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2179    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2180        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2181
2182        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2183            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2184        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2185            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2186
2187        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2188        if options:
2189            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2190
2191        return csv(
2192            *sqls,
2193            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2194            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2195            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2196            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2197            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2198            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2199            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2200            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2201            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2202            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2203            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2204            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2205            options,
2206            sep="",
2207        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2209    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2210        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2212    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2213        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2214    ) -> t.List[str]:
2215        return [
2216            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2217            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2218        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2220    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2221        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2222        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2223        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2225    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2226        into = expression.args.get("into")
2227        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2228            into.pop()
2229
2230        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2231        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2232        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2233        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2234
2235        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2236        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2237            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2238            limit.pop()
2239        else:
2240            top = ""
2241
2242        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2243
2244        if kind:
2245            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2246                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2247            else:
2248                if kind == "STRUCT":
2249                    expressions = self.expressions(
2250                        sqls=[
2251                            self.sql(
2252                                exp.Struct(
2253                                    expressions=[
2254                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2255                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2256                                        else e
2257                                        for e in expression.expressions
2258                                    ]
2259                                )
2260                            )
2261                        ]
2262                    )
2263                kind = ""
2264
2265        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2266        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2267        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2268        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2269        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2270            expression,
2271            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2272            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2273            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2274        )
2275
2276        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2277
2278        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2279            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2280                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2281            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2282                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2283            else:
2284                table_kind = ""
2285            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2286
2287        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2289    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2291        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2292        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2294    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2295        if expression.expressions:
2296            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2297        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2299    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2300        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2301        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2302        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2303        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2304        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2306    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2308        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2310    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2312        kind = expression.text("kind")
2313        if kind:
2314            kind = f"{kind}."
2315        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2317    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2318        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2320    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2321        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2322        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2323
2324        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2325        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2326
2327        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2328        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2330    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2331        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2332        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2334    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2335        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2336            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2337            order = expression.args.get("order")
2338
2339            if limit or order:
2340                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2341
2342                if limit:
2343                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2344                if order:
2345                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2346                return self.sql(select)
2347
2348        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2349        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2350
2351        while stack:
2352            node = stack.pop()
2353
2354            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2355                stack.append(node.expression)
2356                stack.append(
2357                    self.maybe_comment(
2358                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2359                        comments=node.comments,
2360                        separated=True,
2361                    )
2362                )
2363                stack.append(node.this)
2364            else:
2365                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2366
2367        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2368        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2369        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2371    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2372        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2374    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2375        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2376        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2377        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2378        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2380    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2381        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2382
2383        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2384        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2385
2386        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2387            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2388                alias.append("columns", offset)
2389
2390        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2391            columns = alias.columns
2392            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2393        else:
2394            alias = self.sql(alias)
2395
2396        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2397        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2398            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2399        else:
2400            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2401                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2402            elif offset:
2403                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2404            else:
2405                suffix = alias
2406
2407        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2409    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2410        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2412    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2413        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2414        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2416    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2417        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2418        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2419        order = expression.args.get("order")
2420        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2421        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2422        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2423        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2424
2425        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2426
2427        first = expression.args.get("first")
2428        if first is None:
2429            first = ""
2430        else:
2431            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2432
2433        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2434            return f"{this} {alias}"
2435
2436        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2437        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2439    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2440        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2441        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2443    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2444        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2445        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2446        end = (
2447            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2448            or "CURRENT ROW"
2449        )
2450        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2452    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2453        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2454        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2455        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2457    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2459        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2460        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2461        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2463    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2464        return apply_index_offset(
2465            expression.this,
2466            expression.expressions,
2467            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2468        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2470    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2471        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2472        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2475    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2476        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2478    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2480        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2481            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2482                this = self.wrap(this)
2483            return f"ANY{this}"
2484        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2486    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2487        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2489    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2490        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2491        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2492
2493        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2494            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2495            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2496
2497        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2498
2499        if default:
2500            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2501
2502        statements.append("END")
2503
2504        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2505            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2506
2507        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2509    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2512        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2514    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2515        order = expression.args.get("order")
2516        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2517        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2519    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2520        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2521        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2522        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2524    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2525        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2526
2527        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2528            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2529        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2530            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2531        else:
2532            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2534    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2535        args = expression.expressions
2536        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2537            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2538
2539        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2540            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2541
2542        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2543            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2544
2545        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2547    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2548        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2549
2550        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2551        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2552            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2553
2554        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2556    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2557        return self.func(
2558            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2559        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2561    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2562        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2563        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2565    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2566        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2567        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2568        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2569        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2570        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2571        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2572        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2573        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2575    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2576        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2577        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2578        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2579        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2581    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2582        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2584    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2585        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2586        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2587        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2589    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2590        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2592    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2593        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2594        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2596    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2597        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2598            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2599            if not callable(transform):
2600                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2601                return ""
2602
2603            return transform(self, expression)
2604
2605        if isinstance(expression, int):
2606            return str(expression)
2607
2608        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2609            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2610            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2611        else:
2612            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2613            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2614
2615        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2617    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2618        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2620    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2621        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2622        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2623
2624        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2625        if unique_keys is not None:
2626            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2627        else:
2628            unique_keys = ""
2629
2630        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2631        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2632        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2633        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2634
2635        return self.func(
2636            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2637            *expression.expressions,
2638            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2639        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2641    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2642        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2644    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2645        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2646        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2647        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2648        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2649        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2650        return self.func(
2651            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2652        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2654    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2656        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2657        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2658        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2659        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2660        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2661        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2662        return self.func(
2663            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2664            this,
2665            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2666        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2668    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2669        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2670        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2671        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2672
2673        if nested_schema:
2674            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2675
2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2677        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2678        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2679        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2681    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2682        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2684    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2686        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2687        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2688        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2689        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2690        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2691        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2692        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2693        return self.func(
2694            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2695        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2697    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2699        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2700        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2701        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2702        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2703        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2705    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2707        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2708        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2709        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2710        with_ = (
2711            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2712            if expressions
2713            else ""
2714        )
2715        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2717    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2718        query = expression.args.get("query")
2719        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2720        field = expression.args.get("field")
2721        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2722
2723        if query:
2724            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2725        elif unnest:
2726            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2727        elif field:
2728            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2729        else:
2730            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2731
2732        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2734    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2735        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2737    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2738        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2739        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2740            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2741        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2742
2743        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2744            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2745            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2746
2747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2748        if this:
2749            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2750            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2751
2752        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2754    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2755        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2757    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2759        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2760        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2761        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2762        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2763        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2765    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2766        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2768    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2769        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2770        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2772    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2773        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2774        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2776        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2778    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2779        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2781    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2782        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2783        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2784        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2786    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2787        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2788        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2789
2790        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2791            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2792        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2793            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2794
2795        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2797    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2798        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2800    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2802        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2803        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2805    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2807        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2808        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2810    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2813        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2815    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2816        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2818    def and_sql(
2819        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2820    ) -> str:
2821        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2823    def or_sql(
2824        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2825    ) -> str:
2826        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2828    def xor_sql(
2829        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2830    ) -> str:
2831        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2833    def connector_sql(
2834        self,
2835        expression: exp.Connector,
2836        op: str,
2837        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2838    ) -> str:
2839        if stack is not None:
2840            if expression.expressions:
2841                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2842            else:
2843                stack.append(expression.right)
2844                if expression.comments:
2845                    for comment in expression.comments:
2846                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2847                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2848            return op
2849
2850        stack = [expression]
2851        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2852        ops = set()
2853
2854        while stack:
2855            node = stack.pop()
2856            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2857                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2858            else:
2859                sql = self.sql(node)
2860                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2861                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2862                else:
2863                    sqls.append(sql)
2864
2865        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2866        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2868    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2869        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2871    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2872        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2874    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2875        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2877    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2878        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2880    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2881        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2883    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2884        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2886    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2887        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2888        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2889        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2890        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2891        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2892        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2893        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2895    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2896        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2897        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2899    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2900        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2902    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2903        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2904            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2905        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2907    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2908        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2910    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2912        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2913        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2914        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2915        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2916        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2918    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2920        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2921        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2922        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2923        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2924        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2925        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2926        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2927        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2929    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2930        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2931        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2932        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2933        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2934
2935        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2936            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2937
2938        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2940    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2941        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2943    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2944        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2945        if chain is not None:
2946            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2947
2948        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2950    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2951        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2952        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2953        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2955    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2956        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2957
2958        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2959        if dtype:
2960            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2961            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2962            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2963            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2964            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2965
2966        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2967        if default:
2968            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2969
2970        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2971        if comment:
2972            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2973
2974        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2975            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2976
2977        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2979    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2980        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2981            # Remove db from tables
2982            expression = expression.transform(
2983                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2984            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2986        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2988    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2989        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2990        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2992        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2994    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2995        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2996
2997        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2998            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2999        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3000            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3001        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3002            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3003        else:
3004            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3005
3006        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3007        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3008        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3009        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3010        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3012    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3013        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3014            return self.expressions(
3015                expression,
3016                key="actions",
3017                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3018            )
3019        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3021    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3022        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3023        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3024        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3026    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3027        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3029    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3030        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3031
3032        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3033            case = exp.case()
3034            for arg in expression.expressions:
3035                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3036            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3037
3038        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3039
3040        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3041        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3042        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3044    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3045        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3047    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3048        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3050    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3051        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3052        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3053        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3054        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3056    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3057        return self.sql(
3058            exp.Cast(
3059                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3060                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3061            )
3062        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3064    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3065        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3066            return self.func(
3067                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3068            )
3069        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3071    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3072        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3073
3074        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3075            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3076
3077        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3078            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3079                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3080
3081        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3082            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3083                return self.sql(
3084                    exp.cast(
3085                        l / r,
3086                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3087                    )
3088                )
3089
3090        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3092    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3095    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3098    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3099        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3101    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3104    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3107    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3110    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3113    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3114        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3116    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3117        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3119    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3122    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3125    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3126        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3127            return self.sql(
3128                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3129            )
3130        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3132    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3133        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3135    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3136        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3138    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3139        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3141    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3142        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3144    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3145        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3147    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3148        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3150    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3151        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3153    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3154        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3156    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3157        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3159    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3160        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3162    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3163        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3165    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3166        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3168    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3169        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3171    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3172        this = expression.this
3173        expr = expression.expression
3174
3175        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3176            this, expr = expr, this
3177        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3178            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3179                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3180
3181            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3182
3183        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3185    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3186        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3187        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3189        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3190        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3192    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3193        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3194        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3196    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3197        args = []
3198
3199        for key in expression.arg_types:
3200            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3201
3202            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3203                for value in arg_value:
3204                    args.append(value)
3205            elif arg_value is not None:
3206                args.append(arg_value)
3207
3208        if self.normalize_functions:
3209            name = expression.sql_name()
3210        else:
3211            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3212
3213        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3215    def func(
3216        self,
3217        name: str,
3218        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3219        prefix: str = "(",
3220        suffix: str = ")",
3221    ) -> str:
3222        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3224    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3225        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3226        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3227            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3228        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3230    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3231        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3233    def format_time(
3234        self,
3235        expression: exp.Expression,
3236        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3237        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3238    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3239        return format_time(
3240            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3241            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3242            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3243        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3245    def expressions(
3246        self,
3247        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3248        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3249        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3250        flat: bool = False,
3251        indent: bool = True,
3252        skip_first: bool = False,
3253        skip_last: bool = False,
3254        sep: str = ", ",
3255        prefix: str = "",
3256        dynamic: bool = False,
3257        new_line: bool = False,
3258    ) -> str:
3259        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3260
3261        if not expressions:
3262            return ""
3263
3264        if flat:
3265            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3266
3267        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3268
3269        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3270        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3271            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3272
3273        result_sqls = []
3274        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3275            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3276            if not sql:
3277                continue
3278
3279            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3280
3281            if self.pretty:
3282                if self.leading_comma:
3283                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3284                else:
3285                    result_sqls.append(
3286                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3287                    )
3288            else:
3289                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3290
3291        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3292            if new_line:
3293                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3294                result_sqls.append("")
3295            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3296        else:
3297            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3298        return (
3299            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3300            if indent
3301            else result_sql
3302        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3304    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3305        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3306        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3307        if flat:
3308            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3309        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3311    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3312        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3313        if not property_name:
3314            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3315        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3317    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3318        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3320    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3321        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3323    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3325        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3326        expressions = (
3327            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3328        )
3329        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3331    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3333        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3334        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3336    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3337        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3339    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3340        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3341        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3342        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3343        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3344
3345        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3346        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3347            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3348            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3349                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3350        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3351            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3352                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3353            else:
3354                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3355        else:
3356            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3357        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3359    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3360        table = expression.this
3361        table_alias = ""
3362
3363        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3364        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3365            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3366            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3367
3368        this = self.sql(table)
3369        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3370        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3371        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3372
3373        return self.prepend_ctes(
3374            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3375        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3377    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3378        if expression.args.get("format"):
3379            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3380
3381        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3383    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3384        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3385            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3386            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3387
3388        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3389        if not fmt:
3390            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3391            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3392
3393        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3395    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3397        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3398        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3399        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3400        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3402    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3404        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3405        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3406        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3408    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3409        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3411    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3412        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3414    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3415        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3416        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3417        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3418        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3419        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3421    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3423        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3424
3425        if having:
3426            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3427
3428        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3430    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3431        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3432        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3433        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3434        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3435        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3436        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3437        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3438        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3439        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3440        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3441        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3442        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3443        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3445    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3446        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3447        if key_block_size:
3448            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3449
3450        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3451        if using:
3452            return f"USING {using}"
3453
3454        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3455        if parser:
3456            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3457
3458        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3459        if comment:
3460            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3461
3462        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3463        if visible is not None:
3464            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3465
3466        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3467        if engine_attr:
3468            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3469
3470        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3471        if secondary_engine_attr:
3472            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3473
3474        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3475        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3477    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3478        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3479        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3481    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3482        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3483        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3485        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3486        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3487        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3488        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3489        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3490        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3491        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3492        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3494    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3495        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3496            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3497
3498        case = exp.Case().when(
3499            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3500            expression.args["true"],
3501            copy=False,
3502        )
3503        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3504        if else_cond:
3505            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3506
3507        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3509    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3511        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3512        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3513        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3514        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3515        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3517    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3518        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3520    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3521        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3523    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3524        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3525        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3526        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3527        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3528        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3529        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3531    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3533        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3534        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3536    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3538        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3539        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3541    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3542        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3544    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3545        arg = expression.this
3546        if not arg.type:
3547            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3548
3549            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3550
3551        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3552            return self.sql(arg)
3553
3554        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3555        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3557    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3558        this = expression.this
3559        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3560            return self.sql(this)
3561
3562        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3564    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3565        this = expression.this
3566        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3567            return self.sql(this)
3568
3569        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3571    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3572        this = expression.this
3573        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3574
3575        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3576            return self.sql(
3577                exp.cast(
3578                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3579                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3580                )
3581            )
3582
3583        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3584            return self.sql(this)
3585
3586        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3588    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3589        return self.sql(
3590            exp.func(
3591                "DATEDIFF",
3592                expression.this,
3593                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3594                "day",
3595            )
3596        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3598    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3599        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3600            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3601
3602        unit = expression.text("unit")
3603        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3604            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3605
3606        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3608    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3609        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3610
3611        return self.func(
3612            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3613        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3615    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3616        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3617            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3618            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3619            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3620            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3621
3622        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3623
3624        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3625        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3626            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3627
3628        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3630    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3631        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3632        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3634    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3635        expression.set(
3636            "expressions",
3637            [
3638                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3639                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3640                else e
3641                for e in expression.expressions
3642            ],
3643        )
3644
3645        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3647    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3648        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3649        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3650
3651        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3653    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3654        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3655        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3656
3657        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3658
3659        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3660        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3661
3662        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3663        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3664
3665        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3666        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3667
3668        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3669        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3670
3671        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3675    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3676        to = expression.this
3677        value = expression.expression
3678        style = expression.args.get("style")
3679        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3680        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3681
3682        if not to or not value:
3683            return ""
3684
3685        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3686        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3687            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3688
3689        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3690        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3691
3692        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3693        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3694            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3695
3696            style_value = style.name
3697            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3698            if not converted_style:
3699                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3700
3701            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3702
3703            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3704                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3705            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3706                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3707            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3708                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3709            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3710                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3711
3712        if not transformed:
3713            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3714
3715        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3771    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3772        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3773        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3774
3775        if not value:
3776            return option
3777
3778        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3779
3780        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3782    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3783        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3784        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3785            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3786            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3787            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}"
3788        else:
3789            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3790            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3791            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3792
3793        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3794        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3795
3796        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3797        encryption = f"ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3798
3799        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3800        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3801
3802        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3803        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3804
3805        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3807    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3809        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3810
3811        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3812        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3813
3814        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3815        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3816
3817        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3818        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3819        if params:
3820            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3821
3822        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"